PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION
B.F. Skinner conducted
research for number of years to know how learning takes place. He used rats,
pigeons etc. as subjects in his laboratory. He found that whatever, a living
organism emits a correct response, we can reinforce it or strengthen it by
rewarding that organism immediately. Skinner demonstrated that, “Almost any
sequence of activities however, complex could be taught to an animal, provided
it was within the physical capability of that animal, by breaking it down into
very small steps and teaching each step in the sequence in turn by rewarding or
reinforcing it each time the animal performed it”. (Michael J. Apter)
On the basis of his
experiments B.F. Skinner predicted that the best way to teach an academic
subject in the classroom would be to divide it into a number of small steps and
to reward the mastering of each successive step. He also said that the most
suitable rewards for mastering each step would be the knowledge which the
students get that he is successfully mastering the subject matter.
Some direct relevance to
programming is found in Thorndike’ s law of effect- a learner like to repeat
his performance or takes more interest in future learning if the present
learning gives him pleasure or satisfaction this concept of reinforcement by
reward or satisfaction is an important feature of programmed instruction.
Programmed instruction in
an advanced form was initiated by Prof.
Sydney L. Pressey of Ohio State University the inventor of Teaching machine
called Drum tutor with the pupil could evaluate his self attained knowledge.
Prof. B.F. Skinner and James
H. Hollad devided an auto instruction method in 1954. Prof. B.F. Skinner
also devised Linear mode of PI and Norman A. Crowder branching model of P.I. in
1955. Robe Mager’s Learner controlled instruction in 1960. Gilbert’s Mathetics
in 1962 and Lawrence Stolurow’s Computer Assisted Instruction have had a great
influence on programming.
Definitions:
1.
Espich
and Williams:
Programmed
instruction is a planned sequence of experiences leading to proficiency, in
terms of stimulus response relationships that have been proven to be effective.
2.
Smith
and Moore (1962):
Programmed instruction is
the process of arranging the material to be learned into a series of sequential
steps, usually it moves the student from familiar background into a complex and
new set of concept principles and understanding.
3.
Leith
(1966):
Programme is a sequence
of small steps of instructional material (called frames) most of which require
a response to be made by completing a blank space in a sentence. To ensure that
expected responses are given, a system of cueing is applied and each response
is verified by the provision of immediate knowledge of results. Such a sequence
is intended to be worked at the learner’s own pace of individual self
instruction.
2.4.1 PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMMED
LEARNING INSTRUCTION
Programmed learning has
shown a new path towards automation and individualisation of instruction. They
(largely) solve the problem of individual differences provided the following
principles are used.
1.
Principle
of small steps: The content we want to teach is split
into a number of tiny bits or steps and they are then arranged in a logical
sequence. Easy times are put first followed by difficult ones by following one
of the important psychological principle of learning following one of the
important psychological principle of learning proceed from the easy to the
complex this type of sequencing of material helps the learner to make correct
response.
2.
Principle
of Active responding/Learning by doing: The principles
emphasizes that learner is an active participant in the learning process at
every stage. He is required to respond correctly to some question or problem
before he proceeds to the next. This ensure active involvement in the lesson.
3.
Principle
of self pacing: Programmed learning is based on the
assumption that learning can take place better if an individual is followed to
learn at his own speed/pace. Because there are wide individual teaching to
differing interests abilities and needs of pupils in her classroom. The brighter
students can take up a program and finish the concerned lesson quickly while
the rest can go a little slower, if they want and finish it. Programmed
Learning helps us to tackle this problem of individual differences in our
classes successfully.
4.
Principle
of immediate confirmation of feedback: ‘Feedback’ is one of
the basic principle in programmed learning. In this learner is not helped to
make correct response but is given the knowledge of what it is also. This
enables him to have a sense of mastery or achievement and leads to sustained
interest on what he is learning. This acts as an agent of reinforcement of his
new learning behavior.
Immediate confirmation or
feedback is two-way beneficial, first the pupil cannot guess in any relevantly
developed program. Second when the pupil is uncertain about his own response,
he can confirm his responses or it can b corrected if it is not correct.
5.
Principle
of student testing: In programmed learning the student is
required to give his response or answer at each step. After doing so, the
teacher knows where exactly the student has gone wrong and the programmer can
either revise reward; or may change the order of certain stages in the program.
In this way continuous
evaluation of the programme helps the programme to find out weakness of his/her
programme and then accordingly modify programme.
STYLES OF PROGRAMMING
Programming is usually
presented by a book or machine. A programme is defined as the subject matter
that is to be learned by the pupil via the machine or other device.
Some of the programming styles are:
1.
Linear on Extrinsic programming –
Skinner
2.
Branching or Intrinsic programming –
Norman Crowder
3.
Mathetic Programming – Gilbert. A
4.
Ruleg/Egrule system of programme –
Glaster et al.(represents inductive deductive approach)
5.
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
6.
Lerner Controlled Instruction (LCI)
1.
LINEAR
PROGRAMMING
This style of programming
is associated with the work of Dr.
Skinner and Dr. Holland of
Harvard University. It springs from theory of operant conditioning. It is also
called Straight Line Programme / Single Track Programme / Construct Response
Type Programme / Extrinsic Type Programme.
Ø A
linear programme is called a straight line programme i.e. single track as all
the learners travel through the same path of learning the student proceeds from
one frame to the next until he completes the programme.
Ø Even
the learner responses are controlled by the programmer.
Ø Questions
are asked directly and the student is asked to think and write down the
answers.
Ø Usually
fill in the blanks or V.S.A questions are preferred, because the student has to
construct his responses it is called Construct response type of programme.
Ø In
linear type, the feedback or reinforcement is quick in the form of knowledge of
the result.
Ø Also
in linear programme the learner is helped to avoid errors in making response by
means of clue/cues/primes and prompts. Actually the error should not be more
than five percent in a good programme. The learner is enabled to learn by
avoiding errors and not by the trial and error method.
The sum up the main features of
Linear programme are:
i.
All learner’s travel the same path of
learning i.e. they proceed in Linear fashion
ii.
Their responses are fully controlled by
the programmer (controlled response)
iii.
Immediate feedback or reinforcement is
provided to them (immediate feedback)
iv.
Primes, clues and prompts help them to
learn by avoiding errors (provision for clues/cues & prompts)
v.
Each learner works at his/her own speed
(self pacing)
vi.
Programme is arranged in small steps
which contains single idea. (small steps)
vii.
Here responses are to be given after critical
observation and comprehension of the frame and leaner can proceed further only
after responding. Learner will be active (active response)
viii.
Used mostly in lower classes
ix.
Useful for students with low and average
I.Q.
Limitations of Linear Programming:
1.
Learning
a dull process: Because of the arrangement of stimuli
and response in linear fashion (i.e. learn proceeds from first frame to second,
second to third and so on)- Learner may find learning a dull process,
uninspiring and uninteresting.
2.
No
freedom of choice: In linear programming all responses are
controlled by the programmer freedom of choice is curtailed
3.
Costly:
Printing linear programmes even in a small content area is costly affair
4.
More
pages: Since the subject matter is split into small steps
and the leaner is taken through them one after so more pages are needed than
found in a text book
5.
Time
consuming: Since the steps are small it may consume lot of
time to cover the subject matter
6.
Students
interests are not taken care of: The order of presentation
of steps in this programme is logical and not psychological naturally students
interests are not taken into account
7.
No
possibility for integrated knowledge / no possibility for development of
imagination: This type of learning is not conductive
to the development of imagination nor does it provide for the integrated
knowledge.
8.
No
scope for flexibility or Rigid following: There is no
scope for flexibility in linear programming because of the rigid path
prescribed by the programmer.
9.
May
not be suitable to all students: We know that students
differ in their abilities as well as their interests. The particular order or
sequence followed in a programme may not suit all but they have no other
alternative.
10.
Honesty
cannot be expected all the times: Taking up programme
requires high standard of honesty of honesty and sincerity on the part of the
learner one may go through the answers given and then respond to the questions
asked without actually learning anything.
11.
Useful
in limited areas: Linear programming is used in limited
areas where the behavior is really measurable such as mathematics and sciences.
12.
Guessing:
In blank type of responses, primes/prompts/cue help in guessing the answer.
2. BRANCHING PROGRAMMING
The branching programmes
were developed by Norman A. Crowder.
So it is also known as Crowderian Model. Crowder has given its definition as
follows “It is a programme which adapts
to the needs of the students without the medium of extrinsic device as
Computer”.
The small step principle is
not generally followed in Intrinsic or branching programme. The frames are
large and the questions are of multiple choice type. Depending on the response
chosen by the learners thay are branched off to different frames. Those who
choose wrong responses are directed to frames where remedial teaching or
exercises are available. The remedial teaching that is the remedial frames to
which the learner is directed will depend on the wrong answer chosen. For
different wrong answers there will be different remedial frames when the
remedial teaching exercises is over, the learner comes back to the original
track.
Principles of Branching
Programming:
1.
Principle
of Exposition: This principle is based on the fact that
the learner is allowed to view the whole situation before he proceeds to
answer. Hence the whole concept is presented in paragraphs or in more pages.
2.
Principle
Diagnosis: The multiple choice format is used to diagnose the
weakness of the learner.
3.
Principle
of Remedy: If the learner gives wrong answer he is taken to
remedial frame where remedial instruction is provided to him.
Features of Branching Programming:
1.
The subject matter is arranged in the
form of frames & width of frame ranges from one to two paragraphs or even
one page.
2.
The pupil is required to make a choice
out of several choice as multiple choice questions are asked.
3.
Each response to the question is keyed
to different pages.
4.
Unlike in linear programming, where the
material is arranged in a single ordered sequence, in branching programme more
than one sequence or route through which the material is arranged ad student
follows the sequence determined by his answer. This practice of providing
alternate routes the program is called Branching.
5.
Here the student’s responses determine
the route followed, he had freedom of choice and this type of programming is
called intrinsic programming.
6.
Thus the learner moves forward if he
answers correctly otherwise he is diverted (branched) to remedial frames if he chooses
the wrong answer.
7.
This cycle goes on till the learner
passes through the entire material at his own pace.
8.
Here the learner is more alert and
concentrates on subject matter carefully.
9.
In view of the provision of the built in
method for handling student errors, the rate at which errors are committed
causes much less concern than in the linear program.
10. The
material presented to each pupil is directly and continuously controlled by the
learner’s performance in answering questions.
Techniques in Branching Programme:
There are two techniques
in which Branching programme can be arranged. They are:
1.
Backward Chaining
2.
Forward Chaining
1.
Backward
Chaining:
The learner goes from
first frame to the second frame to the second frame only if he makes a correct
response. If he makes an error, he is led to a remedial frame where he is given
some more help in understanding the concept. The learner will then be directed
to the original frame number one. The learner now reads again and answers
correctly in the light of remedial instruction received earlier. Thus, the
learner goes through the same frame, once before the remedial frame and second,
after the remedial material.
2.
Forward
Branching/Chaining:
In this type, whether
the learner make a correct response or wrong he will be always going to the new
pages, progressing from page to page. When the learner makes a wrong choice, he
is directed to a remedial frame where his mistakes are fully explained and
followed by another parallel questions, from which he goes to the next frame in
main stream.
Advantages of Branching Programme:
1.
The bigness of the frame as well as
branching reduces unnecessary repetitions and responding. This saves the amount
of learning time and reduces fatigue.
2.
One of the merit of branching program is
it capacity for explaining ‘why’ a response is either correct or incorrect.
3.
When a programmer knows that learner’s
entry behavior differs from each other branching programme is more suitable.
Limitations:
1.
Branching cannot cater to the needs of
all individuals.
2.
Branching, programming is used only
after standard VI as small children do not follow its mechanisms.
3.
It is very difficult to ask questions on
the entire subject since the length of the frame is big.
4.
The multiple choice questions provided
in this programme leads to guess work without understanding
5.
The branching programme is costly
affair.
6.
Teacher/Programmer needs skill in
constructing frames.
COMPARISON BETWEEN LINEAR AND
BRANCHED PROGRAMMING
Linear
Programming
|
Branched
Programming
|
1.
Propagated by B.F. Skinner
2.
It is based on Skinner’s operant conditioning
3.
Based on
i.
Principle of small steps
ii.
Principle of active responding
iii.
Principle of immediate confirmation
iv.
Principle of self pacing
v.
Principle of student testing
4.
Frame size is less i.e. 15-25 words or 1 or 2
sentences
5.
Number of steps are large
6.
Frame structure is Stimulus-Response -Reinforcement
7.
Types of frames-Four types Introductory, Teaching,
Practice and Testing frames
8.
Constructed response type. Fill in the blank type
9.
Responses are controlled by the programmer
10.
Purpose of response is fixing of learning
11.
Immediate confirmation of correct response wrong response
is ignored
12.
Error rate is less than 5%
13.
Suitable to lower classes
14.
Suited to average and pupils of low IQ
15.
Tests knowledge and understanding objectives
16.
Pages are in sequential. Usual textbook style.
Teaching machine cheap model
17.
Printing is cheap when compared to branched type
18.
More useful in concept formation
19.
Used to teach facts, definitions & core skills
20.
Extrinsic type of programming
|
1.
Propagated by Norman A. Crowder
2.
Based on configuration theories
3.
Based on
i.
Principle of exposition
ii.
Principle of diagnosis
iii.
Principle of remedy
4.
Frame in one or two paragraphs or even a page
5.
Number of steps are small
6.
Frame structure is
Stimulus-Response-Remedy-Reinforcement
7.
Types of frames- Two types Homepage-Teaching &
diagnosis wrong page-Remediation is given
8.
Multiple choice type
9.
Responses are controlled by learner
10.
Purpose of response is Measurement/Diagnosis of
learning
11.
Confirmation & approval of correct response
& wrong response is remedied
12.
Error rate is 20% in general
13.
Suitable to higher classes.
14.
Suitable for gifted and creative pupils
15.
Tests higher order objectives-analysis problem
solving etc.
16.
Pages are not sequential zigzag type scrambled
book. Computer-Costly type.
17.
Printing branching type is costly.
18.
More useful in concept comparison.
19.
Used to teach other than facts and basic skills
i.e., depth of the subject is given importance.
20.
Intrinsic type of programming.
|
3. MATHETICS PROGRAMMING
Mathetics is another type
of programming developed by Thomas F.
Gilbert in 1962. This is the most
controversial approach to Programmed instruction. Mathetics comes from the
Greek root ‘mathein’ which means ‘to learn’, In mathetics style ‘an exercise’
is the technical unit of learning instead of a Fraine as in the linear type.
This type of programming
follows the principle of backward chaning. The sequence of learning is reserved
in a sequence of events that leads to the comparison of a complex skill, the
last events that is the final one the completes the task is the most motivating
one. The learner or the performer of the task will now have the satisfaction of
having successfully completed the task. So Mathetics Programme starts with the
final event and after learning it, the learner is presented with the final
event and after learning it, the learner is presented with the event
immediately preceding it. In this way the backward chain is formed.
Gilbert developed it for
teaching psychomotor skills for training people to learn skills rather than for
acquisition of knowledge. But Mathetics can be used to learn problem solving
skills, some rules in mathematics and grammar.
Principles of Mathetics:
1)
Principle
of chaining: The main idea involved in this is that
the chain of stimulus and response is helpful in developing the mastery of the
content. Elements of the content are presented in stimulus (S) and response (R)
form. These S-R’s are arranged in chain in such a way that each response works
as stimulus for the next i.e.
S1
R1 S2 R2 ….………..Sn Rn
2)
Principle
of discrimination: The main idea here is that the
discrimination of situation of learning is generated by providing different
stimuli having different responses. Every stimulus and response is independent
of each other.
i.e. S1 R1
S2 R2 S3 R3 S4 R4
3)
Principle
of Generation: The main idea here is to emphasize the
fact that generalization is a crucial situation in learning. In this type of
situation, a group of stimuli amit a single response.
i.e. S1
S2 R
S3
Advantages:
1) Mathetics
programme is rightly suited to teaching of skills.
2) It
is considered as a complete training system, that guides the trainer to
discover the training deficiencies of specific population.
3) Basically
its purpose is clinical because it is considered with analyzing the dwficiency
and also making it up.
4) It
is a step towards the technology of education.
5) This
is more job oriented and work oriented.
6) In
mathetics programme in the process of skill acquisition transfer of training
forms as essential part of instruction.
7) As
a technique of teaching mathetics can be applied to a wide range of subject
matter.
8) Retrogressive
chaining technique is one of the characteristics of mathetical style of
programming.
9) In
mathetics, for task completion motivation is important factor.
10) This
type of programming is more valid & meaningful for both programmer &
learner.
Limitations of Mathetics
Programming:
1) This
type of programming is technical in nature so programmer needs skill &
training.
2) Forming
backward chains is difficult for teacher.
3) It
involves lot of time & energy.
4) This
programme may not be suitable to teach all subjects as it is suits mostly to
concrete materials & psychomotor skills.
5) Less
freedom of choice for learners.
6) This
programme lacks arrangement for creating to individual differences. So all
learners need to learn in the same way.
DEVELOPING PROGRAMME
One of the innovations in
the field of educational thought and practice is Programmed learning or
Programmed Instruction. This is a method of self study. The learner is enabled
to acquire some knowledge with the help of what is called a program.
Phases of Developing a Programme:
The
different phases in developing a programmed are discussed here:
1)
Preparatory
Stage:
i.
Selection
of the topic: The unit, content or topic is to be task
analyzed in view. The content is divided into small steps & sequenced
ii.
Decision regarding the target group the
likings, disliking, interests, attitude of pupil for whom the programming is to
be prepared should be considered-prerequisites for learning the programme
should be decided.
iii.
Writing objectives in behavior
iv.
Writing entry behavior of the learners.
v.
Developing specific outline of the
content to be programmed
vi.
Preparation of pre test & post test
vii.
Task analysis of the content.
The content we want to
teach is split in to a number of tiny bits or steps and are arranged in logical
sequence. One of the important psychological principles of learning i.e.
proceed from easy to complex I applied here. Each such step is presented in
what is called a Frame and so in a program there are number of frame. A frame
is meaningful segment of the material which the learner handles one at a time.
The learner reads the
frame and he may be required to fill in the blank or choose the correct answer
from the options given. In order to help the learner to make correct response
he is helped by means of what are called primes, prompts and clue or cues.
A prime is defined as an
operation which is applied in a frame in which the learner is to precisely what
he should do.
For
Ex: Animals, which live in forests are called wild animals, the lion which
lives in forests, is therefore a wild animal. This kind of help is called
Prime.
A ‘prompt’ does not give
to learner the correct answer in the stimulus itself or otherwise it is a
supplementary stimulus or hint that helps him to give correct response.
Here part of the correct
response is given and this helps the learner to give correct response. This
type of prompt is called Partial Response prompt.
Whereas ‘cue’ is a mechanical aid such as underlining word or
putting it in italics that helps the learner to make the desired response,
Again in frame there are three parts.
Parts in Frame: 1)
Stimulus Situation
2) Teaching Stage
3) Testing Stage
Roughly in a programme
10% frames are in Introductory stage about 70% in the teaching stage and the
remaining 20% in testing stage.
Writing the Programme:
Throughout this stage one
should keep in mind the terminal behavior of the learner and also remember two
important psychological principle of teaching “Proceeding from simple to
complex” as well as from ‘ known to unknown’, when subject matter is to be
split in to small steps.
Each
unit of the programme has five stages:
1.
Introduction
2.
Review of the past knowledge
3.
Step by step development of programme
4.
Wearing stage(Here the learner is
required to show his competencies called for by objectives without the help of
prompts & primes)
5.
Final summary and criterion test.
There are three main
types of operations. Which are used in a program. They are:
Priming
Prompting
&
testing
Priming is defined as an
operation which is applied in an introductory frame in which a student is told
or shown precisely what to do. There are two different kinds of primes.
Prime Types: 1)
Copying
2) Echoic
3) Demonstration
In copying prime, the
learner is simply required to copy out the response given in the frame itself
by way of responding for ex. Animals which have back bones are classified as
Vertebrates –
Birds have backbone and they are
therefore________________
Answer:
Vertebrates
Echoic Prime: For
ex, is used mostly in teaching of pronunciation, here the learner reproduces
echoes-merely what is heard.
Demonstration Prime: Here
something is demonstrated which help the child to make desired response when
constructing programme the programmer should see that too many primes should
not be used as learner may make correct responses without any understanding.
Prompting: While
prime gives the correct response itself, a prompt on the other hand, merely
provides some additional stimulus or help to the learner to make a correct
response i.e. prompt is a supplementary stimulus, a hint, a cue or a bit of
assistance that helps the student to come up with a correct response.
The primes are used both
at the introductory and teaching stage due to two reasons, one is to guide the
learner in his efforts to make a correct response and another reason is prompts
prevent the learner from making mistakes.
According
to Skinner, prompts may be classified as:-
1)
Formal
2)
Thematic
A formal prompt is one
that provides the learner with the form or structure of the correct response
but not its meaning.
For
Ex: The number of letters or words in the correct response may be given.
To give up means to aba_________
Answer:
Abandon
Rhyming prompts, literal
prompts and multiple choice prompts are some of the important kinds of formal
prompts.
A rhyming prompt provides
the learner with a word which ‘rhymes’ with a response.
For
Ex: 5 times 3 and just one is equivalent to 4 times 4 or
In this example 4 times 4
rhymes with the correct answer, which is 16. That is 4 times provides help to
the learner to make the correct response.
A literal prompt is
provided by the occurrence of a single response in the presence of many
appropriate stimuli.
In multiple choice
prompt as the name indicates, the learner is helped to make a correct choice
among the responses given by their logical argument.
For
Ex: Tall is in positive degree
Taller is in comparative degree
Tallest is the superlative degree
Big
is in positive/comparative/superlative degree
Answer: Positive
degree
Different types Thematic Prompts
For small children Formal
prompts are useful. These prompts tend to kep the frames short and also
minimize the error rate. Thematic prompts are more useful and make for
effective learning since the help provided by them in making correct responses
is not just mechanical but calls for some intelligent thinking on the part of
the learners.
Primes are used in
Introductory frames as they emit behavior but prompts are used in teaching
frames and these teaching frames establish new behavior.
Testing is
the third stage in the writing of a programme, the first two being the
introductory and the teaching. At the testing stage no prompts are to be used
minimal stimulus is given and maximum response is expected of the earner. After
writing the program next thing is editing.
Editing: The
main objectives of editing are:
1.
To eliminate ambiguities &
inadequacies
2.
To improve the logical sequence of frame
3.
To sharpen & to smooth the program
4.
To improve technical aspect (content) of
the program
5.
To improve the appropriate use of maps,,
charts and illustration in the program.
Three types of Editing:
Technical accuracy edit: The
purpose is to find out if the entire subject matter of the concerned unit has
been covered, so check error in presentation of concept, principle so it is
shown to subject specialist.
Technique edit:
With these objectives program is to flow from item to item interaction of
items, logical sequencing of ideas, for apt illustrations & examples.
Composition: Refers
to checking of programme in respect of vocabulary, spelling, grammar
punctuality etc.
Individual Tryout: After
testing & evaluation of the programme, the programme should be administered
to a student informally just to revise the programme.
Small Group Tryout: A
small group of 5 to 10 students, fairly a representative of those for whom the
programme is finally intended is selected they are given pretest then programme
is administered then a post test is given.
Field Testing: At
this stage the programme is tested in actual classroom situation here has
pretest and post test should be conducted. The purpose of field test is to
point out specific areas which need improvement in the program. Here three
types of analysis of the program are to be carried out at this stage.
First the program is analysed with a view to
find out its error rate for Ex: suppose 10 students take a program unit,
consisting of 15 frames and they committed on the whole, 5 errors then
Error
rate=
According to Skinner 5
to 10% error rate is permitted for a linear programme. Crowder is of the view
that even error rate of 29% is permissible for branching type. Since the errors
are basic to learning, they should be detected and corrected immediately. Low
error rate means that program is an easy
one or there has been an excessive prompting used in it.
Cause for pupil’s errors
may be due to difficult language used in program, large steps, logical
sequencing of frames, in adequate prompts in introductory stage.
Another measure commonly
used to judge the effectiveness of a program is to calculate its density and
this tells up whether a particular program is dense or sparse.
TTR=
This formula gives independent density
of any program. It is generally accepted that TTR of a good program lies
between 0.25 and 0.33.
ADVANTAGES OF PROGRMMED
INSTRUCTION/LEARNING
1.
Learning is more effective in programmed
learning (P.L.) since the learner is continuously active.
2.
Paves the way for individualized instruction.
Thus paves the way for individualized instruction. Here the learner learns at
his own pace/speed. In programming the learner is helped either by giving
prompts/clue/ions or y providing remedial instruction.
3.
Learning is easy in P.L. Learning
material arranged in such a way that the learners learn by avoiding errors not
by trial & error method.
4.
The content arranged using psychological
principle i.e. proceed from easy to complex and immediately after answering the
frame the students will come to know whether his response in correct or not in
this immediate reinforcement is possible.
5.
Develops good habits in pupil i.e.
self-confidence, self-reliance, honesty etc.
6.
Once the programme is prepared &
tested on pupils, it can be used at any time and at any place.
7.
Since the programme is developed by
expert & creative teacher, it provides quality teaching to pupils.
8.
P.L. is a method of self instruction or
self learning.
9.
It helps in eradicating the evil for
copying during examination.
10.
Possibility for reframing the
programming whenever possible.
11.
There is a facility of revalidating
& revision of Programme depending on students response.
12.
The failing standards can be checked
& suitable remedial measures can be given with the help of programmed
materials.
13.
It is quite useful in Non-formal
education and continuing education.
14.
It develops scientific attitude among
the learners as they are able to think rationally and logically.
15.
It provides feeding material to the self
instruction devices like computer, teaching machines, programmed text etc.
16.
It may help the teachers in the
reduction of their total load of work.
17.
Programmed learning is bound to yield
good results as it is better prepared & planned material.
18.
It involves both learning and
evaluation. It is good self-learning & self evaluation device.
19.
It develops creativity among learners.
20. P.L.
provides variety in the Teaching learning process.
LIMITATIONS OF PROGRAMMED
LEARNING
1.
Teacher occupies an important place in
the teaching-learning process but there is no direct place for teacher in this.
2.
Teacher-taught relationship is important
but through programmed learning it is not strengthened.
3.
Preparation of Programmed learning
materials is quite expensive.
4.
It cannot faster proper attitudes,
aesthetic appreciation, moral standards.
5.
Programmed learning does not help in
development of imagination in pupils.
6.
A programmed text, a machine cannot be
an alternative to teacher.
7.
Lack of training for teachers to prepare
qualitative frames.
8.
Because of self learning it may end in
fatigue.
9.
Lack of availability Programmed
materials for all subjects.
10.
Orthodox teachers will not relish to
accept programmed learning as a ode of teaching in classroom.
