Education During Modern Period-3 B.Ed 1St Sem Notes

RAVINDRANATH TAGORE (1861-1941)

Introduction:

                       Ravindranath Tagore was born at Kolkata in a rich and Educated family in the year 1861. He was taught Sanskrit, Indian philosophy and astronomy first by his father Devendra Nath Tagore. He became famous of his stories, novels and poems. He became popular as a philosopher and a painter. He translated his Geetanjali into English. He received noble prize and worldwide recognition. He established his famous Viswa Bharati on 22^nd September 1921. The aim of this university was to bring about a system between east and the west.

1.      Philosophical Thought:

                      He was successful by incorporating idealism into Naturalism. He wanted to study nature by observation and experimentation. Nature is very much reflected in his poetry, novels stories and paintings. He was a humanist and regarded man as a reflection of God. According to Rabindranath Tagore, child should enjoy complete freedom to develop according to one’s own nature. Nature is considered as an effective and powerful teacher of the child. It should prepare the child to face the challenges of life. So the child should be educated accordingly.

2.      Education Thought:

The principles of Education of Rabindranath Tagore are:

i.            Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction.

ii.            Child should be given full freedom during the process of education.

iii.            Child should be educated in the lap of nature which is always from the crowded environment of towns and cities.

iv.            Foreign education can do nothing in awakening educational spirit. Children will come to know about national ideals, values and culture through national education.

v.            Education should bring out all-round development of child’s personality.

vi.            Children should not be compelled to acquire bookish knowledge. Only knowledge acquired not be compelled from original sources is the best.

3.      Meaning of Education:

                      Tagore said “Education is highest which not only imparts information and knowledge to us but also promotes love and fellow feeling between us and other living beings of the world”.

4.      Aims of Education:

1.         Physical development of the child through education should be given the first priority. Children should be motivated to participate given the first priority. Children should be motivated to participate in a variety of activities like swimming, climbing trees and plucking flowers and fruits from trees, games and sports etc. He also prescribes healthy diet to be given to all children.

2.         Promotion of moral and spiritual development of the child is also necessary to realize the superman- who is good.

3.         In order to promote mental development of the child, their curiosity should be aroused through activities, self experiences and self learning.

4.         Each child has so many creative powers. They should be developed by providing condusive natural environment to the child.

5.         Education should also develop international understanding and sensitivity among the children. It is because individual child is a part and parcel of nature but not a part of particular society or culture.

5.      Method of Teaching:

                     Tagore was totally against the dull and mechanical methods of teaching prevailing at that time. They should be based on real problems of life. Child should be given more and more opportunities to understand the phenomenon by his own activities and experiences and gain knowledge directly.

Important methods prescribed by him are as follows:

1.      Teaching while walking: If the children are sitting idly in the class, their minds will also be passive and dull. On the other hand if they are slowly walking, their minds will be active and alert. If some thing is taught to them while walking, they will easily grasp it.

2.      Discussion Method: Education is that which solves the real problems of life. So problems must be put before children for open discussion. They can think over the problems logically and finally solve them.

3.      Activity Method: Activities must be incorporated in all subjects. Tagore advocated that learning of handicrafts is necessary for all students. Physical exercises and games must be made as part of activities in the school set up.

6.      Curriculum:

                      The curriculum should be wide and comprehensive. It should cover all aspects of human life-physical, intellectual, moral & spiritual. Keeping in view, the spontaneous ‘Interest’ of the child, the curriculum was designed.

                      Languages & literature, mother tongue, Indian languages & foreign languages like German, Latin, French etc. Mathematics, Natural Science like Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, General Science & Health Education, Social Sciences like History, Civics, Geography, Economics & Sociology, Agriculture & Technical subjects, Arts, Music, Dance etc. Religious, Philosophy & Psychology.

7.      Discipline:

                     Child is given full freedom for ones own activities and experiences without lowering down the status of the teacher in the class. The teacher considers the children as innocent and behaves with them with great love, affection and sympathy. He is not a dictator in the class to impose bookish knowledge. Thus along with the students, the teacher is also all the time active in the class or outside the class.

8.      The Teacher:

                     Tagore gave much emphasis on the role of the teacher in educative process. The teacher alone can create a creative atmosphere. He is the person who can knock on doors of mind.

                    Tagore says “They only deserve to be teachers who are patient and tolerant”. “Only he can teach, who can love”.

                     The real teaching is a gift – It is a sacrifice, it is the fulfillment of knowledge of the teacher himself.

9.      The Student:

                      A school becomes complete only through the students. A child should be treated as a child and not as an adult. The sub conscious mind of the child is more important than the active mind of child. The main principles advocated by Tagore for child’s education are Freedom; Fullness and nastiness.

10.    Shanti Niketan:

                      Ravindranath Tagore established an Educational institution to give practical shape to his thoughts related to education near Calcutta on December 22, 1901. It was named “Shanti Niketan”. ‘The Abode of Peace’. The School has a homely atmosphere where the students & teachers live together in a very simple manner. He made provision for the study of religious ideas of Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Islamic, Sikh, Christian and other religious of east & west.

                      Shanty Niketan was a garden school. Classes were held under the shades of the trees. Subjects like Indian painting, Indian dancing, music, physical training etc. were taught. Creative work & literature were encouraged. Poetry & essay writing competitions were held to develop the sense of discipline, good behavior, respect for others, orderliness, modesty, cleanliness etc. his educational concept was focused on Idealism.

                      Tagore felt Shanti Niketan “as the divine humanity working in his mind and compelling him to practical activities”.

11.    Tagore and Viswa Bharathi:

                      Viswa Bharathi, was evolved as an university from Shanti Niketan School. It reflects Indian philsosphical theories. There is no discrimination of place, caste and religions. The universal brotherhood and the global family concepts are the pillars of the education for this university. Shanti Niketan was established as a cultural center with a view to achieve the following aims.

         1.         To understand ‘Truth’ from different angles.

         2.         To study various cultures and the principles of unity.

         3.         To have a comparative study of the eastern and western cultures.

         4.         To bridge the gap between the eastern and western cultures to get these two integrated.

         5.         To establish equal relationships with teachers and the nature.

         6.         To strive to develop the universal outlook.

                     Students belonging to all religious join in this institution. Subjects like sciences, history, arts are the the curricular areas. The study of these subjects enables the learner to make a search for Truth (Sathyam), Goodness (Shivam) and Beauty (Sundaram). The institution admits the students of various states and countries. This provides an opportunity for the inculcation of the Global family concept. The status of the institution has been elevated to a National University. This university has different branches namely Vidya a Bhavan (Research centre), Shiksha Bhavan (College), Patha Bhavan (School), Kala Niketan (Music and Dance), Vinaya Siksha Bhavan (Teacher Education), Shilpi Bhavan (Industrial Training),China Bhavan, Sri Niketan (Village Development), Hindi Bhawan, Center for Islamic research etc. thus it stands a symbol for not only Indian Philosophy but also culture.

Conclusion:

                      Shanti Niketan & Vishwa Bharti are the reflections of Tagore’s spiritual voyage. His own personality reflected a divine humanity which inspired both his students & teachers. These institutions are the result of his experiences & experiments with all his life. Even in the absence of Tagore, his centers of learning remained to prove his achievements as a humanistic educator.

AUROBINDO GHOSH (1872-1950)

Introduction:

                     Aurobindo Ghosh was born August 15, 1872 in Kolkata. He mastered Greek and Latin languages to study the works of ancient Philosophers, Social engineers and poets. He also learnt French, German and Italian languages. He roused the nationalist feelings among Indians through his fairy speeches and three news papers namely – Bande Mataram, Karma Yogi and Dharm. He was imprisoned for several times because of his political and nationalist activities.

Philosophical Thought:

                      The philosophical ideas of Aurobindo mostly taken from his weekly newspaper ‘Karma Yogi’ are summarized below.

1.      He was basically an idealist.

2.      Yogic practices, sadhana and Brahmachaya  are necessary for the promotion and development of human soul.

3.      The main aid of a teacher is the conscience. This conscience has four stages namely

a.       Consciousness

b.      Mind

c.       Intelligence and

d.      Knowledge. Education should develop all these stages as much as possible.

4.      The principle of growth states that a man can attain the status of a superman by himself by the virtue of one’s own supreme development of mental powers.

5.      Growth and development is not a long jump or high jump process. It is always guarded by a certain principle. The aim of this principle of growth is to achieve all the divine powers through yoga and meditation.

6.      An individual does not possess a physical spirit only. He/she is endowed with higher mental abilities, Godly intelligence and very high spiritual soul.

7.      Real education is what which makes the child free and creative. Thus education is provided in a free environment.

Educational Thought:

                      According to Aurobindo Ghosh “Education to be true must not be a machine made fabric but a true building or living evocation of the powers of mind and spirit of human being”.

Educational Philosophy of Aurobindo:

                      Aurobindo dedicated his life to society & education to provide conditions for all men to “travel towards divine perfection and to express the power, the harmony, the beauty and joy of self realization”.

                      Education according to him is a tool by which one can life “for the divine”, “for the country”, for ourself and for others. His education is similar to that of the system of yoga.

                     He says “The time basis of education is the study of mind, infant, adolescent and adult”. The functions of education is to study the mind of the individual, the people, the country and the universe. Through the study of human mind, we can change the man and the society. His ultimate aim is to transform and spiritualized “new man”.

Aims of Education:

1.    Physical purity and development: According to him it is the body which performs all religious functions. So it must be fit and purified. Without physical progress and purity, spiritual development is not at all possible.

2.    Mental development: It means the development of all mental faculties such as memory, thinking, reasoning, special relationship, imagination, discrimination and generalization.

3.    Development of Conscience (Mind): Conscience has four levels according to Aurobindo. They are:

           a.    Chitta – The store house of memory

           b.    Manas – The sixth sense

           c.    Buddhi – The intellect

          d.    Intuitive perfection of truth

4.    Spiritual development: This is actually main aim of Education According to Aurobindo, every individual has some element of divinity. The teacher should first of all find it out, then nourish it through yogic exercises and adoption of Brahmacharya.

Curriculum:

                     The four basic elements in an individual which are the physical, the vital, the mental and the psychic should be developed and perfected so that he can achieve the kost in himself an can contribute to the society.

                      The child is not educated as per the desire of the parents or teachers. He is free to achieve this goal. So, the Aurobino’s system of education laid emphasis on flexible interest used and environment based curriculum. It should have more scope to adopt new methods easily and it should give stress on examples rather than content. It should meet the growing needs of the children in this changing society.

Aurobindo Ghosh has prescribed five principles of Curriculum construction which are given below:

             1.      Curriculum should be interesting to the children.

              2.      It should consist of those subjects and activities which can promote mental and spiritual development of the children.

            3.      It should be able to motivate the children for learning.

             4.      It should be able to activate the creative potentialities of the children.

             5.      It should be upto date and enriched that it can make the child a superman.

Methods of Teaching:

                     The following principles should be followed by the teacher in the process of teaching learning.

1.    Freedom to the child: Free environment should be created for children so that they may gain more and more knowledge through their own efforts.

2.    Mother tongue- the medium of instruction: Children should be imparted education only through their mother tongue. It will increase their grasping capacity and they will learn even the difficult subjects very easily.

3.    Principle of interest: Children can be motivated in the class only when education is given to them according to their specific interests. For this purpose teacher should first study the varied interests of the pupils.

4.    Principle of learning by doing: Aurobindo gave very much emphasis on the activities of pupils. What they learn from books, it should be supplemented by experimentation. Montessori method of teaching for primary classes and practice of drawing for secondary classes are suitable methods of teaching.

5.    Principles of self experience: Children should be given total freedom to initiate them to learn on their own through effort and experiences. This type of learning is very useful for their future life. So the activities of the teacher should be very  minimum.

6.    Principle of group learning: According to him teaching and learning is a co-operative process. So there must be full Co-operation and co-ordination between teacher and the pupils on one have and among the pupils on the other.

7.    Principle of need of the child: While imparting education, specific needs of the child must be taken into consideration. These needs can be found out by studying their interests and attitudes.

8.    Sensory approach: Senses are the gate ways of knowledge. So sense of children should be trained properly to acquire knowledge and experience. From this point of view Aurobindo is a realist.

9.    Sympathetic attitude towards children: Almost love and sympathy should be shown by the teacher towards his pupils both in and outside the class. This will reduce the tension of learning in the minds of pupils.

10. Education according to the nature of children: Each child has been gifted by nature with some mental and spiritual potentialities. Always the teacher should try to develop these potentialities to the maximum extent possible.

The teacher:

                     The teacher plays an important place in Aurobindo’s education system. He is considered as a ‘Sacred Trust’.

                      The qualities of a teacher are to have self-control, absence of superiority and equality of man, free from egoism, good company.

                     The teacher should have three instruments i.e. teaching, examples and influence to make his teaching effective & lively. He should develop close contacts with the students. Knowledge of psychology is essential for a teacher to understand the child easily.

                     According to Aurobindo, the teacher is “a man helping his brothers, a child leading children, a light kindling other lights and an awakened soul awakening other souls, at the highest power”. The role of a teacher is that for a friend, philosopher, guide & helper.

Sri Aurobindo International Center of Education:

                     This center is the practical implementation of Aurobindo’s ideas on education. It was started in 1943 with twenty students in Pondicherry. In 1952, it was inaugurated by the mother as “Sri Aurobindo International University center”. But from 1959, it was known as “Sri Aurobindo International center of Education”. In this center the education starts from Kindergarten till the end of studies. It provides requirements for the free growth of the child according to nature. The child has to stay there for a period of ten to fifteen years & may continue to life after the completion of studies.

                      The main aim of this institution to make the students conscious of the fundamental rights of the nation to which they belong and also to know the modes of living of other nations so that they may respect equally the true spirit of all the countries.

Auroville:

                      The University of Auroille was started in 1968 near Pondicherry. The aim of this university was to search  for new education in a new society and to humanize the people living there. It has  four zones which represents the important activities of human life, industrial, cultural, residential and educational. It is place of never ending education of constant progress in education.

Conclusion:

                      Thus, Auribindo’s philosophy of education has inspired the humanity to the greatest extent of being spiritual. He gave importance to all aspects of human being in educational system. The Physical Being (Tapasya of Beauty); The vital being (Tapasya of Power); The Mental Being (Tapasya of Knowledge) and The Psychic Being (Tapasya of Love). The spiritual transformation of man was the goal of his spiritual education. The educational process is still going on in his centers of education. His concept of education is accepted worldwide and students from abroad comes to pursue education in his center of education. Though, Aurobindo is not present, hisprinciples of education are carried on & on by the generation.

MAHATMA GANDHI (1869-1948)

Introduction:

                      Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2 October 1869 at Porbandar in Kathiawad. As a student of school, he was slow, shy and hesitant, however, his observance of truth was real and continuous. He founded the National Indian Congress in 1894.

                      Gandhiji’s educational philosophy took shape through his educational experiences at the Tolstoy farm at Transval in South Africa. On the Farm he undertook the responsibility of educating his own sons and other children. For the children he has to devote 8 hours a day for vocational training and only 2 hours for book learning. The children aged from 6 to 16 were very happy in “learning by doing” and “learning by co-operation”.

Views of Gandhi on Education:

Gandhiji propounded his views on education as follows:

1.    Education for a just social order: The ultimate objective of the new education is not only a balanced and harmonious individual but also a balanced and harmonious society. A just social order in which there is no unnatural dividing line between the haves and have nots and everybody is assumed of living wage and right to freedom.

2.    Concept of Education: In Gandhiji’s words “By education I mean an all round drawing out of the best in child and man body, mind and spirit”.

Right education is that which draws out and stimulates, the spiritual, intellectual and physical facilities of the children. A proper and harmonious combination of all the three required for making of the man and constitutes the true economics of education.

3.    Education through craft: The uniqueness of this scheme is that education is to be given ‘through’ village crafts. The end in view is not to be accomplished by merely adding a village craft to the current syllabus.

4.    Self supporting aspect: The use of craft all levels and at all stages of education was his concept of “Bread & Labour”. He wanted to teach children the dignity of labour and to make them learn to regard it as an integral, art and means of their intellectual growth and to make them to realize that it was patriotic to pay for their training through their labour. He wanted to fulfill the gap between education and life by drawing upon the cultural, social and vocational potentialities of the students and to make education “life-centered”.

5.    Dignity of labour: It is a crime to make education merely literary and to unfit both boys and girls for manual work in later life.

6.    Methods of Teaching: Children take in much more and with less labour through ears than through their eyes.

7.    Religious Education: To him religion means truth and Ahimsha. Ahimsha being the necessary and indispensable means for its discovery. Gandhiji felt it is essential for a teacher to develop a religious life so that he can influence his students. He wanted to train the students to develop understanding and appreciation of the doctrines of other great religious of the World and to bridge the gulf between religious life and material life.

8.    Spiritual Training: He made the children to memorise and recite hymns nd read them from books on moral training. But that was far from satisfactory.

9.    Education and Character: Development of personality was more significant than accumulation of intellectual tools and academic knowledge. Good education is that which draws out and stimulates the spiritual, intellectual and physical facilities of children. The end of life must be building up character. What is education without character and what is character without education eliminating personal purity.

10. The teacher: According to Gandhiji “Education of the heart could only done through the living touch of the teacher”. Education I effective if there is a personal touch between the teacher & the taught. The teachers should develop such character which will help them to elicit devotion from the students. Gandhiji in his book “My views on Education” says, “One who cannot take the place of a mother cannot be a teacher” and hence says that he has not used the word ‘teacher’ in his article but used ‘Mother teacher’ instead of it. Woe to the teacher, who teaches one thing with the lips carries another in the heart.

11. Medium of instruction: Our language is the reflection of ourselves. He gave priority to mother tongue. An individual must acquire the ability to speak correctly and effectively his own mother tongue & to read with comprehension and to write simply and correctly before he can claim precision of thoughts or clarity or ideas. Thus, our language is the reflection of ourselves. Mother tongue was given more attention.

12. Women Education: Women is considered as the mother of the race by Gandhiji. Woman is man’s helpmate. According to the materialists life than women. A  proper training must be given to women so that they can discharge their responsibilities to all. As far Women’s education, he was not sure whether it should be different from men’s and when it should begin. But he was not strongly of opinion that women should have the same facilities as men and even special facilities wherever necessary.

13. Hand writing: Hand writing is an art. Every letter must be correctly written as an artist draws his figures.

Gandhiji’s educational philosophy is pragmatic due to the following reasons.

             1.      He has an experimental approach towards life. Gandhiji believed that reality is that which can be verified. He himself calls his auto biography “My experiments with Truth”.

             2.      Gandhiji advocates like a pragmatist that a child should learn from the real experiments of life.

             3.      The project method of the pragmatist and the basic scheme of Gandhiji have many common points. Like a project, a basic craft is to be socialized activity involving participation in social relationships.

               The greatest achievement of Gandhiji according to Shri. M.S. Patel “Is that he, in his educational philosophy gives due place to the dominant tendencies of naturalism, idealism and pragmatism which fuse into a unity give rise to a theory of education whoich would suit to the rule of the day and satisfy the loftiest aspirations of the human soul”.

Evolution of Wardha Scheme:

                     The wardha scheme is imbibed with Gndhiji’s cordial creed of non violence and idea of co-operative community in the year 1937. Gandhiji combined the visionary and practical man. He was a man experimenting with reality. His thoughts evolved and gre with time. He realized with experience. It has become clear that the scope of Basic education has to be extended. It should include the education of everybody at every stage of life. Education has to be as broad as life itself. It has to be adjusted and reoriented with the needs of time and the temper of the emerging society.

Basic Education:

                    The term ‘Basic’ means ‘Base’ which means the foundation upon which the structure rests. Gandhiji calls scheme of education as “Basic Education” due to the following reasons.

v  It is directly related to the needs and interest of the children of India.

v  It is directly related to the basic occupations of the people living in villages.

v  Irrespective of caste, creed, colour, sex and religion. This scheme of education gives emphases on the minimum education to each & every Indian child.

v  This scheme is meant for common man who is considered as the backbone of our country.

Principles of Basic Education:

1.    Free and Compulsory Education for Seven years:

                      Education should be free and compulsory from the age of seven to fourteen years. Seven years course will not only impart elementary education but also secondary education. At the age of 14 the school should be able to produce intelligent citizens. The education should be both manual and intellectual.

2.    Education to center around some craft:

                    The education should be producing manual and should center around some craft. It must have educational possibilities. Different subjects should be taught. On the whole, the education has to be imparted through craft.

3.    Self supporting basis of the plan:

                      Gandhiji was fully aware of the financial condition of our society. The people at that time could not spend even a single penny on education of their children. It was the duty of the state to provide free and compulsory education to all the children. He wanted to make education self sufficient.

4.    The medium of instruction:

                    Mother tongue according to Gandhiji is not only to become the medium of instruction but also to occupy the first place in the languages. To force a foreign to be followed means waste of energy, time and money. In basic system national education is to be imparted through the mother tongue.

5.    The cult of Non violence:

                     Gandhiji had firm conviction in non violence. All the problems are to be solved non-violently. Our arithmetic, our science, our history, have a non-violent approach and the problems in these subjects should be solved only by non-violence.

6.    The ideal of citizenship:

                     The ideal of citizenship is an import feature of Basic education. The spirit of citizenship should be inculcated in the child.

7.    Relationship with life:

                      Education should be closely related to life. Everything is to be taught through the principle of correlation. There are three factors to be correlated namely craft, physical environment and social environment of the child.

Mahatma Gandhi as a Pluralist:

a.    Gandhi as an Idealist: Educational philosophy of Gandhiji has a number of traces of Idealism in it. He had strong belief in good character, combined development of physique and soul. He also believed in religious education, individual freedom, universal brotherhood, truth, goodness and beauty. Because of these virtues he become an idealist.

b.    Gandhi as a Naturalist: Gandhiji discouraged artificial education. Reading the textbooks alone is not education. He wanted natural environment, freedom, self and inculcation of moral character. Self effort is better than external guidance. These ideas have made Gandhiji a naturalist.

c.    Gandhi as a Pragmatist: Utility is the main purpose of pragmatism. Gandhiji aimed at self reliance through education. He said that learning by doing should be the process of education. He supported child centered education. Productivity is one of the basic principles of his basic education. He encouraged the activities that would develop social consciousness. These views have made him a pragmatist.

d.    Gandhi as a humanist: Gandhiji had profound faith in humanism. Decentralized economy was his slogan for self sufficiency of the villages. He supported liberal attitude in discipline. These characteristics made him a humanist. Peach and non violence was the Supreme Principle of Gandhiji. From the above view points, Gandhiji can be considered as a pluralist.

Conclusion:

                     Gandhiji’s philosophy relating to society and its institution seen to be centered around his concept of “human happiness and development the place of man in society and the relationship between the two”. The concept of truth (God) and non-violence (love) developed in his social and human ends. He synthesized important philosophies, i.e. Idealism, Naturalism & Pragmatism to give meaning to education.

                      Thus, Gandhiji dedicated his whole life for the people of this country and pressurized that education should be imparted to each & every child irrespective of his case, religion & etc. Hence, he is considered as the “Father of the Nation”.

JIDDU KRISHNA MURTHY

Introduction:

                       Jiddu Krishna Murthy was born on 11May 1893 at Madanapalli of Andhra Pradesh, Anne Besant adopted him. She recognized the special talents in him and thought that definitely he would be contributing a lot to the society. After observing the existing problems in the field of education, he tried to find the solution for them.

Philosophy of Life:

                       Jiddu Krishna Murthy thought that there are various miseries in the society like poverty, hatredness, narrow mindedness, violence, jealousy, crime etc. and these should be eliminated. Thus the entire World needs renovation. Only after understanding the complexities human tendencies, the reformation should take place. Human beings should become totally free and independent. They should be detached from all the bondages. He also opined that education is essential to achieve this. This eminent philosopher has contributed a new philosophical outlook to the mankind. The main principles of his philosophy are as follows.

                     1.         Knowledge is nothing but realization of ones own self.

                    2.         Knowledge can be achieved only through continuous search for truth.

                    3.         Knowledge can be attained by ones own efforts.

                   4.         Search for truth will be possible after getting the mental freedom.

                    5.         Creativity means internal realization. For this there should be freedom.

                    6.         To unfold the mental abilities, priority should be given to concentration.

                    7.         Human beings are world citizens.

                    8.         He realized that all human beings are alike. Caste, religion race, colour, region etc. cannot separate them.

                       9.         Nobody will become the teachers to anybody. Nobody is the student to anybody.

                  10.       Mind has the capacity to think and by utilizing this one can find the truth. Only then the person can become the intellectual being.

Educational Philosophy:

According to Jiddu Krishna Murthy, education is of two types.

1.      Education with the Teacher:

                     Through education, one will get the livelihood and helps for the technological development. It helps for gratifying the biological needs and to lead a happy life. For this it is essential to have the teacher.

2.      Education with self effort:

                      This helps to develop the intellect and mental abilities. People should acquire this with continuous self efforts and determination. The present schools are confined as centers only to impart the knowledge related to curricular aspects. They are becoming commercial complexes to promote high level competition to get the degrees without providing any opportunity for psychological development of the child.

                      This is the time to think what education is? Intelligent means the capacity of the individual to think freely out any fear or restriction. But it is not at all happening now. At present the students are trained as the replica of teacher’s attitudes and thinking. They are caught up in the opinions of parents and traditions and lost their free thinking capacity. As a result, there is no independent thinking for them. Jiddu Krishna Murthy is against to these procedures. He opined that in the educational institutions either the following opportunities should be provided or created to instill the thinking capabilities among children.

1.         There should be an opportunity to the child to think freely on his own.

2.         It should be predetermined or based on moral standard caught up with the tradition and customs.

3.         Thinking with full freedom without any inhibitions is necessary. It should not be in the context of traditions or in accordance with the practices already decided or existing. The individual should develop the capacity to think on his/her own without any fear. It does not mean that it is against the procedures or practices of the society.

4.         Each and every aspect should not be compared with other accepted or condemned. All the circumstances of life should be observed both externally and internally.

5.         First of all, we have to look ourselves directly and understand what we are? Accordingly the individual should do.

Educational aims of Jiddu Krishna Murthy:

                      The prime aim of education is to prepare the child to think freely without any fear. The educational aim should be extended with the social context and have the effective educational system in relation to the changes that place in the society.

                           1.         To develop in the child the mental capacities to face the innumerable problems of life in a comprehensive manner.

                           2.         Right from the beginning the affectionate attitude should be developed as part of the holistic personality of the child.

                           3.         The aim of education is to explain the reasons for fear complexes by providing the knowledge about them and help to come out of the fear.

                         4.         The education should provide the knowledge about the relationship and association with the nature and other along with other aspects.

Curriculum: We should fight against the blind befits in the society. Jiddu Krishna Murthy aspired to prepare the future citizens appropriately to establish a new society. But he did not specify plan and other details suitable to this aspect.

                       It is not an easy task to achieve these targets in our country, whih is very vast. In this context the basic education advocated by Gandhi has given direction to some extent. In this scheme there are self sufficiency, learning by doing, productivity etc. are some of the life realities involved. But it also has some limitations to put into practice. The present system of education can be considered as the previous basic education.

Teaching Methods: There is no specific procedure for teaching in this system. To aspire this both the teacher as well as the student should come out of fear. After observing the student, the teacher should teach the child, what he has to learn through his own observation about the world without giving any scope for inhibitions and hesitations. In this environment, the child should not be afraid of any thing. For this it is necessary to have the feeling of security and protection. In the school, the children should have such assurance. “We will do this, we will do that nothing happens it we do anything. Nobody will warn us”. Such feelings should be developed among children. Such atmosphere should be created. The children should get such a climate to act freely. Then only sensitivity, affection, free thinking can be developed among children. When there is fear, there is no scope to develop love and affection. When there is fear, there is no scope to develop love and affection. Only when there is no scope to develop love and affection. Only when there is mutual love, it leads to peace and understanding among the people on the whole.

                       By nature, there is curiosity and thirst for knowledge among children. Based on these aspects, they should be encouraged. Then only they will be lively and distracted. Gradually they learn the other aspects. This makes the teaching learning process easy.

Student-Teacher Relationship: Teaching is not confined only to transforming the knowledge. It is to create a sense of analytical and critical thinking among children. Teacher is not at all a mechanic. It should not be. The teacher should possess the ever-lasting patience and abundance of love. In the process of teaching, the teacher should encourage the discussions and debates. The teacher should motivate the students to think on their critically and with logic and analytical thinking.

Discipline: Jiddu Krishna Murthy felt that the discipline can develop among children with the establishment of congenial atmosphere among them. He gave much importance to individual freedom. Freedom doesn’t mean to act according to ones own whims and fancies. He also opined that there is no necessity for institutionalized discipline. According to him, the child should think freely  to establish the truth without having the teacher so that self discipline can be attained.

                      The education should lead for removal of the blind beliefs in the society. He aspired that education should lead to prepare good citizens for the establishment of an ideal society. His philosophy supported that the schools should mould the new generations to be selfless and become the centers for developing human beings with values. Rishivally school near Madanapalli and Ohio institutions can be said to implement the educational principles of Jiddu Krishna Murthy, which is a new trend in the philosophy of education.

Conclusion: Thus from the above discussion on the life & philosophy of Jiddu Krishna Murthy, It is clearly understood that he was the man of great values and determination related to his struggle for a better and free environment education to children. Education should be given in free atmosphere where the child can learn to his fullest. His philosophy of education has given a new direction in the field of education.

Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR

 Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar

14^th April 1891 – 6^th December 1956

                     “We need people who can see straight ahead and deep into the problems. Those are the experts. But we also need peripheral unision and experts are generally not very good at providing peripheral vision”.                                                                           - Alvin Toffler

Life Sketch:

                      Amongst the great heroes born in India who served the nation on different fronts. Ambedkar created an epoch in the history of Indian calendar of events. He was born to Ramji Maloji Sakpal and Bhimabai at Mhow. He was the last and 14^th child of his parents and a survived one amongst five. He had 2 sisters Manjula and Tulsi, 2 brothers Balram and Anantrao elder to him. He was the most loved in his family. His grandfather Maloji Sakpal and his father worked in British army. His grandfather Maloji Sakpal and his father worked in British army. His father retired from his service as subedar when Ambedkar was 2 years old. He belonged to outcast Mahars (scheduled caste) in Maharastra. His father had a brother who had renounced the world world at an early age. By the time he reached his 6^th year his mother breather her last. Both his sisters got married before his mother’s death and they both and his aunt Meerabai looked after Ambedkar. After completion of his basic schooling at Ratnagiri he has joined school at Satara where depressed classes students were segregated from upper caste students and they were ill treated and humiliate. In his life Ambedkar was moved by Vivekananda a Hindu monk who proclaimed that “your religion is in the kitchen and your Gods are in the cooking pots”; this spirit and universal brotherhood has guided Ambedkar throughout his life. Inspite of all humiliation from teachers and students he continued his education with the love and affection showered by a Brahmin teacher who shared his midday meal with Ambedkar and helped him in academics. They developed a strong bond between them.

1.      His formative years:

                      His father moved in search of livelihood to Koregaon and left Ambekar and his brother to continue with education. They used to visit their father during vacation; while going to his father both the brothers experienced an incident with a bullock cart man who ill treated them as outcastes, untouchables. It has touched his heart; in the deeper layers he felt it like a shadow from the cradle to grave. Then his father married another lady; this has resulted a step motherly treatment both at school and home. He tried to run away but fortunately it did not happen in his life. Then he continued one social reformer Brahmin Krishnaji Arjun Keluskar’s encouragement whom he met in the park where he used to study to have a quite and private space to study. Krishnaji also discussed with his father and planned for his further studies.

                      He came out successfully at matriculation and his success was lauded by felicitating at a function in his place; at that function he spoke a verse. Eastern thinkers

There is so much good in the worst of us

There is so much bad in the best of us

That it behaves all of us

Not to talk of the rest of us

                      Though he loved Sanskrit and had a craving to learn Sanskrit at school as an optional; school authorities did not allow him to take it sometime after he learnt through a private tutor.

                     Inspite of Sharada Act his father got married. After matriculation from Elphinstone high school, Bombay, he got married to Rambai at the age of 14.

2.      His economic ideology:

                     He was against imperialism and capitalism. He was influenced by Karl Marx and Buddha’s philosophy. His ideology is a blend of the two. Though basically an idealist in his philosophy he was not a utopian in thinking about achieving absolute equality, which he felt is impossible and the functioning democracy. He was in favour of nationalization of land and agriculture where he was far ahead of his times. He was completely favourable to socialism.

                      To Ambedkar, protection of life and liberty, by the law and constitutin and even political freedom, were secondary to social freedom and economic liberation. He said, “But we cannot forget that people, including the depressed classes, do not live on law and order, what they live on is bread and butter”.

                      While speaking of successful functioning of democracy he said, there must not be an oppressed class or suppressed class. There must not be a class, which has got all the privileges and a class, which has got all the burdens to carry. He did not agree with those who place political freedom first and foremost.

                      He has particular about the aim of and our ideal of one man and one value in all walks of life-political, economic and social.

                     He openly disagreed with Gandhian economic ideology related to class structure (high and low, rich and poor, owners and workers). He feels that democratic society must suure a life of leisure and culture to each of citizens. Both Ambedkar and Nehru believed in state’s socialism. Ambedkar backed socialism without dictatorship and with parliamentary democracy. Basically Ambedkar’s political ideology is a socio-economic ideology.

3.      His political ideology:

                      He was not in total agreement with Gandhian “Gram raj is Ram raj”. He feels for the hierarchical structures and topographical caste divisions in the villages. He suggested that social system should have exclusively separate panchayat and electorate instead of treating them economically weaker sections, which would lead to political, social and economic freedom. He said the village system has perpetuated untouchability.

                      He referred to America where when the president of America, was requested by the people to stand for the second time for presidentship of America, Washington said, my dear people, you have forgotten the purpose for which we made this constitution, we do not want a hereditary ruler or a dictator. Ambedkar felt that this constitution was very necessary in case of India.

4.      His social vision:

                      Right from childhood Ambedkar was influenced by sant Kabir’s poem and also he was inspired by Buddha’s secular Eastern Thinkers and rational ideas. They taught that nobody is a mahatma. It is very difficult even to be a human being let alone to be saint and he did not believe Gandhi as mahatma.

                     He felt religious education is very essential in the life of a man. He learnt by heart from his father recitation on Kabir, Tukaram, Mukteswar etc. quite early in his life; he was against the social evils in Hindu religion. He refers to an incident: while addressing GIP railway depressed class workmen’s conference at Manmad on 12 and 13 Feb. 1938 he said depressed classes are shut from weaving department in cotton mills both at Bombay and Gujarat. They were made to work in fellow beings did not want to work with them, but they don’t mind working even with Muslims.

                     He expressed his despair and agony for their fate and said you should not wait and pray to anybody to overcome the problem; no god and superman will rescue you. It is you who can abolish on your own. He also felt legislature has to provide food, clothes, shelter, education and medicine and livelihood to them.

                     While addressing women he said don’t treat yourselves as untouchables; live a clean life. Dress yourself not as the untouchable ladies. He encouraged depressed classes to take part in politics and legislature of the country.

                      He defied untouchability in India, which is permitting exploitation without obligation; it is worse than slavery, which at least takes care of slave’s better living and provides minimum facilities. In a way untouchability is a class war. Ambedkar dedicated his book “Who were the Sudras?” in memory of Jyothiba Phule, who said social democracy is more vital to independence from foreign rule.

                      He said in social reform there should be only one standard book of Hindu religion acceptable to all Hindu’s and recognized by all should be penalized.

                     He said in social reform there should be only one standard book of Hindu religion acceptable to all Hindu’s and recognized by all should be penalized.

                      He expressed his agony towards untoucability to the extent of appealing tom SC’s to become Buddhist as Hinduism is creating such an inequality. In his last years he was pessimistic about educated SC’s who were more selfish and foolish and he started paying his attention to the masses and felt that somebody from scheduled castes should come forward to take up the responsibility from him, which he could no more continue.

Further:

                      In the last decades of his life he was elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1946. On 9 December 1946 the Constituent Assembly was convened. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as chairman and Nehru addressed the Constituent Assembly and proposed the constitution. Muslim league and Native Indian states representatives boycotted Nehru’ speech and entire proceedings. Mr. Jayakar, supported by Ambedkar adjourned the proceedings until all representatives attended it.

                     Ambedkar forcefully delivered a speech in defense of comprehensive representation in the assembly and Rajendra Prasad postponed it for one month. Meanwhile the British government decided on India’s independence. On 15^th July 1947 Indian independence bill was approved by the British parliament.

                    Cabinet was assumed on 3 August 1947. Nehru who assumed as prime minister has invited Ambedkar as the minister and he accepted the assignment.

                      Dr. Ambedkar’s contribution as one of the founding fathers of the constitution is reflected in his various articles seeking to promote social equality and economic freedom. He chaired the drafting committee of the Constituent Assembly. Draft constitution was carefully examined by the Constituent Assembly. Ambedkar had to answer many queries, doubts on the constitution, which was kept open for public views and criticism. He worked tirelessly to finalize the constitutional document inspite of his ill health. Soon after he fell ill and he was looked after by a lady doctor Saraswathi, a Brahmin Sharada Kabir. Ambedkar offered to marry her. After getting married to her they embraced Buddhism. She was named after marriage as Savitha A mbedkar. They started participating in Buddhist religious conferences and launched a national campaign to propagate Buddhism. Buddhism gained momentum from October 1956 and 3 lakh people joined in this neo-Buddhist movement.

                      His old Alma Mater, the Columbia University invited him on a lecturer tour and conferred on him honorary degree of law. On his return to India he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Literature (D.Lit) from Osmania University, Hyderabad.

                     Because of his revolutionary thoughts he could not remain for long in the cabinet as law minister. He resigned and started as opposition party and participated in the free India elections in 1952. He inspired youth to take up bodybuilding and sports. He was also keenly interested in cricket, swimming, hockey and dog breeding. He was a voracious reader, he used to read books and listen to music. Upper class people criticized his Buddhist movements as anti-Hindu. In his book “What have the Hindus done for us?” the Hindus were the target of his attack. He further suffered s setback in his health and at the age of 65 in 1956 he breathed his last peacefully during his sleep in Delhi. Nehru, G.B. Pant and Babu Jagjeevan Ram were first to arrive. His body was flown to Bombay and all the institutions, schools and factories closed in respect of his memory. Ambedkar’s surviving son Yeshwant Rao Ambedkar in 1912, M.A. Economics from Columbia University, USA IN 1915 and also did his Ph.D in 1916. He obtained D.Sc degree and was called to the bar in 1923.

                      His elder brother stopped his studies and started working to meet Ambedkar’s further studies. When Baroda Mharaja Sayaji Gaekward appealed to the audience to propose a SC candidate to finance for further studies Krishnaji wrote to Maharaja recommending Ambedkar’s name. With that his financial crisis came to an end.

                       Inspite of continued discrimination he was be friend of a British professor Muller who guided him in his graduate (BA) studies.

                      Sayaji Rao has appointed him to a senior civil service post. Within a short service his father fell ill and he had to leave for Bombay and by the time he came back home his father was on his deathbed and breathed his last.

                     He remained unemployed after resigning his job at Baroda. Incidentally he got the opportunity to have an interview with Sayaji Rao. Then Maharaja told him about the newspaper advertisement where they are in need of a candidate to be sent abroad to New York by awarding scholarship with a bond that after getting back from abroad he has to serve the state of Baroda for 10 years.

                      He happened to meet a great personality Sri Aurobindo Ghosh ho entered Baroda service at that time. He used to study 18 hours a day. He was conferred with Master of Arts degree in 1915 from Columbia University. In 1916 he joined the London School of Economics. He was a voracious reader, he was the first to enter and last to leave the museum. He spent much time in reading his research days. In 1916 he was given Doctorate for his work on India’s National Income from Columbia University. Nearly after 18 years, that was published and dedicated to Maharaja Sayaji Rao Gaekward. In 1921 he obtained D.Sc degree for his work on the problem of rupee and later on in the next two years 1922 and 1923 he studied law and became barrister. One of his Parsi friends helped him to practice law.

6.    His Works:

                       He wrote a thesis on “Ancient Indian Trade”, (he wrote a research paper entitled “Castes of India”) in which he concluded that endogamous and intra-caste matrimony was the most important cause of perpetuation of the caste system in India.

                      He lived a very disciplined and economic life and saved his scholarship money also for his family.

                     From London School of Economics he earned a doctorate for his monumental work on “The Problem of Rupee”; then after his return to India he was invited to take up finance ministry, which has resulted in a lot of opposition from the people. These hardships, which he underwent, made him leave Bombay and felt that these political problems need a political solution.

                     When he was working at Sydenham College of Bombay as an economic professor he experienced a lot of opposition.

                      Raja Kolkar hearing about Ambedkar’s interest in reforming youth he financed Ambedkar to start a monthly journal “Leader of the Dumb”; every issue focused on the problems of the downtrodden, question of liberty, equality and fraternity, eradication of untouchability and protection of civil rights.

                     He could get good amount there. He spent money very economically; whatever he is left with was spent for the Dalit and other welfare programmes.

                     In recognition of his services the Governor of Bombay nominated him to the upper house of the legislature. His friends felicitated and gave him a purse, which was also donated by him to the Dalit organization. I this process of his service to social organization, he could not concentrate on his legal profession. Then he was appointed as professor of law in Bombay Law College. At the same time the Simon Commission came to India and everybody were raising slogans “Go Back Simon”.

                     But Ambedkar was  not against them as they came to enquire about the socio-economic conditions of people. He wrote a big report on the condition of downtrodden people, inspite of all upper class people negating cooperation and accepted membership in the commission. After 10 months he left his law professionally and the government of Bombay appointed him as “Member of Committee to enquire into the welfare of depressed classes. He visited many places like Belganna, Kandach and Nasik and lead the representation of the depressed classes. And in 1930 the committee has presented a report of which many of the recommendations were implemented.

                      Then the independent movement was gaining momentum. The British government came out with round table conference with a proposal to work out a constitutional and administrative framework for India. 89 participants were invited. At the conference Ambedkar announced his intention to plead for India’s independence. While staying in London he has collected a lot of books from London. After the round table conference he became a good friend of Gandhi. But Gandhi was adopting a non-violent path in resolving social, political and economic issues for which Ambedkar preferred confrontation. On 27 May 1935 Ambedkar lost his wife Rambai. In 1937 provincial self-government was proclaimed. Ambedkar formed a new party for poor landless and workers; 15-17 candidates of his party came out successfully. Gradually his health started deteriorating. He could not take up the principal’s post in law college. However, he continued with the public activities. Ambedkar was elevated to the Viceroy’s Council as a member, along with Sir, C.P. Ramaswamy Ayyar, Sir, Mohd Osman and Sir Sikander Singh and was also appointed as labor minister of the Bombay presidency for three years.

                      He struggled a lot to represent depressed classes in the round table conferences. After failures and obligations scheduled castes were promised with a share in future government of the country.

                       In 1942 Ambedkar founded an all India scheduled caste’s federation, the foremost organ of the untouchable of India. He was made minister in the Viceroy’s executive council. One of the report submitted by Ambedkar represented for equal representation for SC’s in the governance of the country at all levels.

7.    Ambedkar the architect of the Constitution of India:

                     Ambedkar played a significance role in the independence movement. He campaigned against imperialism and Nazism. He also mobilized SC’s against imperialism and Nazism.

                       It was told that when the drafting of the constitution of India was initiated, Pandit Nehru and Sardar Patel thought of inviting and consulting Sir Ivor Jennings, who is internationally renowned constitutional expert at that time. In this regard when they approached Mahatma Gandhi, he said why they are looking for a foreign expert when the expertise and a rightly deserving person like Ambedkar was available within the country. He was ahead of his times in many legal and constitutional issues facing India.

                       He underlined the need for women sharing hereditary property – fundamental right applicable to any constitution in the world. He also foresaw the right for work, equality of men and women, equal remuneration for them and protection of civil rights.

                      During one of the speeches of Ambedkar at the drafting stage of constitution “Federation is a union which is indestructible” he called himself a progressive conservative. He said if you want to maintain the Hindu system, Hindu culture and Hindu society don’t hesitate to repair where it is necessary i.e. the bill addresses to repair those parts of Hindu society, which are dilapidated. He is a man who believed in delivering goods than speeches or drafting the constitution at all”. He said, “We want men, a dedicated band of executives to form a delivery system or the weaker sections”.

                     Ambedkar concluded, “The draft constitution recommended the parliamentary system of executive because they preferred more responsibility for the legislature rather than stability. Parliament does not govern and it is not intended to govern. A strong executive, tempered and controlled by constant, vigilant and representative criticism, is the ideal at which the parliamentary institution aims”.

His Philosophy and Contribution to Education:

                       Let us take an insight from his speech broadcast on All India Radio on October 3, 1954 “My personal philosophy”.

Speech:

                        Basically we don’t find his explicit contribution on basic tenets of philosophy nor much prescription to education. Eastern Thinkers However we can understand his ideas on education, which are nothing but he derivations from his social and political philosophy. His whole focus was on the then even now to some extent the kind of exploitation and subjugation of the social class.

His philosophy:

                      He is basically a non-theist and has a lot of apprehension about Hindu religion and raised many questions about Hindu religion beliefs and the impact on downtrodden groups, social life and status. He believed in Kabir, Tukaram and other saints and a staunch believer of Buddha’s philosophy. All these issues related to his ideology are reflected in his life sketch. The reality for him is not authority. He believed in rational, empirical and sensory knowledge as the true sources of knowledge. He believed more in human values and also moral and scientific values in brief. 

Metaphysics/Reality: He did not believe in Hindu authority of religion. He believed in Budha’s philosophy and humanistic ideology as reality.

Epistemology: He believed in rational, empirical and sensory knowledge.

Axiology: Moral, scientific and human values.

                      Ambedkar has witnessed the then Indian social realities and was also subjected to the social discrimination, which was also reflected in the education system. The structure of Indian society with the hierarchy of stratification and subjugation of some of the caste groups had lasting impact on the education. He felt that the pattern of inequalities existing in a society reflects in its educational practices and institutional structure.

                      As such no explicit aims of education or implication to education mentioned by B.R. Ambedkar; however the basic ideas on education were based on the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity.

                                    I.        Aims:

-          Human liberation from suppression.

-          Social and individual aim.

-          Moral aims.

-          Development of rationality.

-          Vocational aim.

               1.    Human liberation:

                To create sense of new thinking especially in the Indian context and awakening of downtrodden and depressed classes in education according to him is nothing but “the effort of man to discover him as a free being”. Education alone can enlighten an individual and can work against the oppressive elements of traditional society.

               2.    Individual and social aims:

               He felt there is need to have a blend between individual and social aims of education. Individual is an end in himself. The aim of education is the growth of individual and development of personality. For him society is not above the individual and individual should be subordinate to the society which in turn helps in his development.

               3.    Moral aim:

                 Moral aim is an important aim of education; it equates the spirit of love of man by man. His people’s education society was to practice humanitarian principles in one’s life. His focus was to develop humanistic and moral values.

              4.    Development of rationality:

              He aimed at developing a rational individual. To equate what Ambedkar said in this context.

“He that will not reason is a bigot.

He that cannot reason is a fool.

He that dare not reason is a slave”

              5.    Vocational aim:

                 He also stressed the need for vocational education. In this address to Elphinstone College in Dec. 1952, he advised teachers to teach to meet the challenges of modern world.

                                          II.        Curriculum:

               He suggested utilitarian curriculum. He was against introducing charka in primary schools, which may deprive schedules castes people of their curiosity.

               He was inspired by the freedom of choice in American University, he proposed a dynamic progressive and scientific curriculum. He also suggested in favor of women. While imparting education the abilities of women should be taken into consideration. Compulsory and liberal education was suggested for women. He was also of the view that women should be primarily trained in home science and peripherally in other subjects also. In a way it is like Rousseau’s philosophy.

                         III.        Teacher:

               Teacher plays a vital role, which cannot be substituted by anything else. He felt the teacher should be truthful. The teacher should be a seeker of knowledge and should have authority on his area of subject.

                In other words broadly his educational contributions can be understood as follows:

                 1.      Universal free compulsory education.

                 2.      Education of the deprived classes.

                 3.      Keen interest in backward communities.

                 4.      Special provisions for deprived classes.

                 5.      Establishment of hotels.

                 6.      Establishment of education society.

                 7.      Educational administration.

                 8.      Economics of education.

                9.      View on privatization and commercialization of education.

                  1.    Universal free and compulsory education:

                 B.R. Ambedkar may be considered as the champion of this issues of education, which is reflected in the constitution. He felt every individual (men/women) should get access to education as a fundamental right. His own concern was to provide education up to 14 years as stated in directive principles of state policy and is a key for establishing social justice. It helps to uplift the children of downtrodden people. He was in favor of enhancing budgetary provisions for primary education.

                 2.    Education of deprived classes:

                He was critical about the anomalies of the then existing education system. He felt that the total population of the backward communities is more when compared to forward. Hindu and Mohammedans who were getting more facilities.

               3.    Keen interests on backward communities:

                To bring equal progress and status to all people belonging to different communities. They should consider the economically and socially backward communities.

               4.    Special provision for the deprived classes:

                 According to his report submitted to the Indian Statutory Commission in 1928 on the status of depressed classes in Bombay presidency, he demanded that the govt. should do the following.

                  v  Ruler community was hostile to untouchables, so he felt unless the compulsory education act is abolished and transfer of primary education to the school board is stopped, the education of depressed classes would receive a setback.

                 v  Unless the primary education is made obligatory and mandatory the progress of backward section classes cannot be achieved.

                 v  The recommendation of Hunter Commission should be applied to the depressed classes.

                 v  Entry into public services should be made available to depressed classes.

                v  There should be special provisions like scholarship and hostels for the depressed classes for those who cannot afford education. His tireless work resulted in making special provision for the backward downtrodden people under articles 45, 46 and 16(3).

            Establishment of hostels:

                       Initially he established two hostels for backward students at Sholapur and Belgaum. He appealed to the government of Bombay to help the depressed classes education society to establish hostels where poor students could be accommodated 5 hostels were sanctioned by Bombay govt.

People’s Education Society:

                     A great contribution of B.R. Ambedkar was the establishment of People’s Education Society in 1945 on 8 July for the propagation of higher education among dalits and promote moral, intellectual and social democracy amongst them.

The main objective is knowledge and compassion:

                     This society at present runs many colleges in different places like Bombay, Raigarh and Aurangabad affiliated to various universities of those places. Thus his contribution is laudable and long remembered by every citizen of India.

 MOULANA ABUL KALAM AZAD

                    Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was born on November 11, 1888 in Mecca. His forefather’s came from Heart (a city in Afganistan) in Babar’s days. Azad was a descendent of a lineage of learned Muslim scholars or maulanas. His mother was an Arab and the daughter of Sheikh Mohammad Zaher Watri and his father, Maulana Khairuddin, was a Bengali Muslim of Afgan origins. Khairuddin left India during the Sepoy Mutiny and proceeded to Mecca and settled there. He came back to Calcutta with his family in 1890.

                      Maulana Azad represented a glorious synthesis of cultures, civilizations, thoughts and philosophies which have powerfully influenced India’s history. He was a bridge between the old and the new. Indeed he was a strikingly outstanding son of the soil.

                     Mohiuddin Ahmad Abul Kalam Azad was undisputedly a towering figure in the twentieth century Indian history. Born in 1888 in a family of celebrated religious scholars, he was educated at home by his father and men of credit in Islamic learning. He was a scholar thoroughly trained in the traditional Islamic sciences, with great intellectual abilities and eloquence of pen and speech. He had, in addition, a remarkable openness to modern western knowledge even he as he strongly opposed western rule over India. He was a skilled journalist and ideologue who played a leading role in the Indian struggle for independence and then in the government of the Indian Republic, remaining a symbol of Muslims will to co-exist with men of other faiths in modern India. Maulana Azad was educated by eminent Islamic scholars in Islamic Theology and Islamic philosophy. His educational ideas drew their inspiration basically from that source. However, he was equally appreciative of and conversant with the total modern heritage of the age which cuts across the East-West barriers. It was this deep influence on his mind that emanated from other sources which was always reflected prominently in his speeches, writings and actions. This relationship between his Muslim heritage and his Indian heritage could be found most distinctively pronounced in his presidential speech at Ramgarh session of the Indian National Congress. He said “as a Muslim I have a special identity within the field of religion and culture. But I have another equally deep realization. I am equally proud of the fact that I am an Indian, an essential part of the indivisible unity of Indian nationhood, a vital factor in its total make up without which this noble edifice will remain incomplete”.

                       While reading Azad’s story in his “India wins Freedom” the deepest impression left is of his sense of defeat at a price which had to be paid for independence, the partition of India. He would have rather postponed freedom than have this. One by one, the Congress leaders bowed before be reconciled to it. His final plea, at the meeting of the All India Congress Committee that voted in favour of partition of Indian on 14^th June, 1947 was that if this political defeat had to be accepted, “We should at the same time try to ensure that our culture was not defeated”.

                      Azad was saddened and embittered by the partition, by the fact that his congress had agreed to it and especially by the way his fellow Muslims had not followed his lead. After partition, Muslims in Pakistan continued to slander the man who had aspired to lead all the Muslims of India into a bright future. Yet, at a huge meeting of Muslims in Lucknow, shortly after independence, when everyone expected him to condemn Jinnah and the policy that had resulted in partition, he refused to condemn anyone which was characteristic of his personality. Instead , as a lion-heartened forward looking leader he said, “What was not to have happened had happened, We have now to think of the future”.

                       In this spirit Azad threw himself into his work as a leader in independent India. He had joined the interim Government in January, 1947 as Education Minister, feeling that, in formulating educational policy, he could contribute to the future from the country. During his eleven years as Minister of Education, which continued up until his death in 1958, he performed a number of important services for Indian education. In order to reorient and reconstruct the education system in the context of a changed perspective, he began his task with a detailed enquiry into the malaise and limitations of the existing educational arrangement by appointing University Education Commission (1948), Kher Committee for Elementary Education (1948) and Secondary Education Commission (1952-53). He followed it with many fundamental policy decisions and establishment of educational institutions which provided firm ground for the development of Indian education system in future. However, his most significant contribution to education in the post-partition communal violence ridden Indian society has been not in the details of the new pattern of education that was gradually emerging but in the democratic, human, balanced vision, which he brought to bear on the entire structure and content of education.

                      As Education Minister, his speeches often contained numerous references to the importance of education. He felt that education was the problem of problems for Asia and that one of the surest ways of securing international peace is fundamental education for the peoples of the world. He especially emphasized social education by which he meant the inclusion of a lively sense of rights and duties of citizenship and the production of an educated mind in the masses in the absence of literary education. This was to include understanding of social conditions of the country, health education, economic improvement through crafts, arts, literature, music, drama, dance, poetry and instruction in universal ethics, including tolerance and mutual appreciation. Azad was essentially concerned with the basic and women. He devoted himself to the training of individuals who will the creation, through them and for them of a social order which will be inspired by the ideals of social justice, co-operation, broad mindedness and rationalism. Repeatedly he affirmed in his speeches that the central purpose of four Five Year Plans is not the production of material wealth and resources but the creation of a new mind and a new character for which right education is more important than the development of agriculture, industry, trade etc.

                     Azad never had the opportunity to formally experience the discipline of modern education. It was out of his deep interest in learning and enquiry that he acquired fairly good knowledge of Western Philosophy; read Western history and English literature and was able to comprehend certain principles of popular science. Despite his informal exposure to modern education one finds in Azad a visionary of modern educational enterprise who laid a strong foundation of a long term educational and cultural development in India.

                    (Even in the traditional educational regime which he experienced during his youth he did not attend any formal institution. He could have been sent to study at the famous Madrasa Alia in his own and later through some men of letters appointed to teach him at home only. Perhaps in the reckoning of his father the condition and educational standards in Madrasa Alia then (1890 onwards) had already deteriorated. Later, Azad is seen criticizing this traditional educational regime on account of its curriculum, books and methodology of teaching)

                      Early in his career as a Minister, as he contemplated shaping the future of India through educational policy, he thus envisaged the possibilities. Today India is free she can have any kind of mental mould she pleases. Will it be exclusive or will it be all inclusive which has been characteristic of the Indian culture throughout the ages? In the advancement of nations there is no greater hindrances than narrow mindedness. It is our duty to keep ourselves free from this disease in the new era of independence.

                      The tradition in India, he said had been that every kind of culture, every mode of living was allowed to flourish and find its own salvation. He emphasized the acceptance of unity in diversity has been India’s motto throughout the ages. The essence of this principle is a large and wide hearted toleration in which differences are recognized and given their dude. The Indian genius always recognized that truth has many facets and conflict and hatred arise because people claim a monopoly of truth and virtue. Azad wished all Indians to appreciate and imbibe these values which, according to him, should be inculcated through social and general education and in this endeavour he always underlined the critical role of teachers.

                      Azad’s contribution to education can be studied in two distinct categories. One may be the study of his educational ideas as derived from his basic philosophy of life and the other may be the various educational changes and measures of re-construction which were attempted during his regime with the object of making education adequately responsive to the needs and challenges of the national life. There is a significant link between Azad’s educational vision and his educational policy and programmes which is reflected in the important changes and development in the field of education that took place in the eventful early years of the country’s independence.

                     Vision of Education Azad was a strong believer in democracy which he thought will take roots and benefit the masses if education is democratized. Democratization of education starts from the perspective of achievement orientation. Azad pinpointed his efforts for the democratization of education through which he wanted to universalize achievement as the basic criterion in the social selection processes and thereby wanted to break the domination structure of hierarchical Indian society. For this purpose he emphasized four major programmes.

            a)      Removal of illiteracy through universalization of elementary education up to secondary standard and a drive for adult education including education for women.

            b)      Equalizing educational opportunities in Indian society where exploitation on the basis of class and caste divisions were rampant.

          c)      Three language formula where the state languages and Hindi would be medium of instruction but English will remain as an important second language.

           d)      Sound primary education throughout the country.

                      Azad viewed every individual has a right to an education that will enable him t develop his faculties and live a full human life. Such education is the birth of every citizen. A state cannot claim to have discharged its duty till it has provided for every single individual means to the acquisition of knowledge and self betterment. This dream of Azad is likely to be fully realized now as the historic RTE Act has finally been approved by the Parliament and its promulgation is going to start soon.

                      He also held that in independent India, the planning of education at the National level was even more important than economic or industrial planning. He felt that if educational training was unable to inculcate right values and ideals., the security and welfare of the state would be in jeopardy”.

                     Azad geared his educational policies and actions to following main objectives of education. Making of man character building education should help the individual in realizing his immense potential. The context of education, influence of home and religion and the role of the teacher should aim at building of the character and the choice and the practice of moral and cultural values. He stressed the importance of seven values which contributed to the making of man and his society in pursuit of excellence.

        i.            The quest of truth is the principal aim of education, but one should not impose one’s truth upon others through violence and dogmatism. It comes from openness to different points of view and through tolerance of belief other than one’s own.

      ii.            The concept of justice is another aim of education which is related to appreciation of rights and performance of duties as necessary conditions to the discipline of individual and the good of society.

    iii.            Spread of enlightenment through right type of education, for true civilization and equality of life.

     iv.            Co-operation and unity must be learnt through togetherness and friendship thus lying the foundation for peace and harmony.

       v.            The practice of courtesy and chivalry is a grace of life and enriches its quality.

     vi.            The spirit of daring is the most valued asset of youth-society and school should give scope and encouragement to the flowering of the spirit of pioneering and creativity.

   vii.            Quality of humility which chastens and sustains the spirit of man and strivings of his mind.

Education for Democracy: Azad stressed that defenses of newly won freedom which has opened new opportunities had to be built in the minds of free men. This was to be done through Social Education which was accorded a highest priority in his scheme of educational reconstruction. He set up a section of Social Education in the Ministry of Education in 1948. Linking Social Education with Adult Education he emphasized three aspects:

        i.            Imparting literacy

      ii.            Inculcating a lively sense of rights and duties of citizenship

    iii.            Creating an educated mind in the masses which are deprived of literacy education.

Education for Development: Azad enhanced the role of education in national development and encouraged the growth of science and technology at all levels of education. His vision was to make India self sufficient in higher technical education to meet all our needs and looked forward to a day when people from abroad will come to India for higher scientific and technical education. He expressed these views while inaugurating the IIT Kharagpur in August, 1951. Keeping this in view he recognized the structure and activities of the AICTE and set up advanced research centers in science and technology.

Education for National Integration and Secularism: One of the cherished objectives of education should be to promote national unity on the basis of a rich diversity of cultures and beliefs. He supported this idea and stressed the importance of textbooks and reading material especially in history, civics, geography and literature for promoting nationalism and the idea of unity in diversity. India continues to work on this vision of Azad. Kothari Education Commission (1964-66) also stressed this aim of education. NPE 1956 and POA 1986 and 1992 reiterated these objectives of education and envisaged evaluation of textbooks from the point of view of promotion of secularism and social and national integration.

International and Global Citizenship: Education has a definite role to play in promoting world unity and global citizenship. This he expressed at a function of the Indian  National Commission for Co-operation with UNESCO IN 1951. He believed that the cult of narrow nationalism which was inculcated in many societies, conflicted with human progress and human mind should be liberated from prejudice and it will based on race, class or nationality. This he felt demands changing the entire method of teaching of history and geography in schools.

                     During the Maulana’s stewardship of the Ministry of Education, some massive tasks of fact-finding, stock-taking and national planning in the broad fields of education were carried out, preparing for some successes in the decades that followed. The work of the Committees and commissions at various levels of education, notably for secondary and university education; and for universal elementary education in well known. New winds of change began to blow. Special aspects of the problems education such as the promotion of Gandhian teachings and way of life, introduction of general education course, Home Science programmes. institutes  of rural higher education, the training of teachers, development of library services, audio-visual education, promotion of Hindi and other national languages, scholarship for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, education and training of the handicapped, special programmes of education of women and girls, development of cultural activities, youth welfare and physical education, reflect the vastness of the range of activities and innovations initiated by the Central Ministry of Education.

                      He reorganized the All India Council for Technical Education and saw the establishment of a host of institutions of education and cultural significance including Kharagpur Institute of Higher Technology, the University Grants Commission, the Indian Council for Cultural Relations, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Indian Council for Social Sciences Research the Indian Institute of Science, the National Institute of Basic Education, Central Bureau of Textbook Research, the National Board of Audioviual Education, the Hindi Shiksha Samiti, the Board of Scientific Terminology for the Hindi Sangeet Natak Academy, Lalit Kala Academy and Sahitya Acdemy.

Curriculum: Maulana was vividly clear that content and curriculum of education at every level has to be distinctively different from what it used to be in the colonial era and it should address to the objectives of education defined by him and outlined above. He repeatedly stressed following ideas to alter and enrich the content and scope of curriculum.

        i.            At the elementary, level, basic education with its emphasis on learning by doing, should form the content.

      ii.            At the secondary stage curriculum should be re-oriented as proposed by the Secondary Education Commission and should be meant for training in diverse skills and aptitudes and preparation for higher educational pursuits.

    iii.            Educational standards needed to be raised at the university stage and curricula broadened and enriched

     iv.            Adult literacy and social education programmes should be suitably devised so as to create awareness and productivity

       v.            Women’s education should receive special attention

     vi.            The needs of rural areas with emphasis on agriculture and craft should receive attention

   vii.            Physical education, recreation and opportunities for games and sports should form part of educational programmes at all levels.

 viii.            Suitable text books and teaching and learning material be prepared and attention be paid on the needs of the handicapped learners.

     ix.            Research and evaluation should test the effectiveness and guide the development of curriculum and programmes.

       x.            Extensive reforms in examination system to save learners from stress and strain

     xi.            The curriculum should encourage independent thinking, a sense of judgement and the process of learning how to learn

   xii.            International co-operation specially under the auspicious of UNESCO should be welcomed and harnessed for the reform of the curriculum.

Teacher and Teacher Preparation: As we know, Azad never attended a formal school. He acquired his lifelong learning from elders and his mentors whom he chose for himself. Yet, he understood well the place of teachers in any formal education system and firmly believed that no reform in education can be effective without empowering them and no policies can be implemented successfully without taking them fully on board. He had an instinctive reverence for teachers. Humble, lowly paid teachers could easily meet him at his residence. Once, he described the role of a teacher in following words: ultimately all reforms in education depend upon the quality of our teachers. I have mentioned to you the changes we are seeking to bring about in elementary, secondary and university education. These changes will not give the desired results unless there are efficient and devoted teachers to carry them out. Poor wages and loss of social status have been perhaps the main reasons why there has been a fall in the quality of teachers in recent years. You are aware that some measures have already been taken to remedy this state of affairs. While we shall continue with our efforts for improving the status, service conditions and emoluments of teachers at all levels, I would appeal to them that they must also develop a spirit of real service and dedication in the cause of the nations.

                     Besides other distinguished characters, in Azad was also hidden an ideal teacher. People felt; when he talked of certain value and standards, that he not only knew what he was taking about but was preaching what he had practiced in his life. This, asserts Saiyaidain, is one of the most essential qualities of a true teacher, in any sense of the word. Hypocrisy is at a severe discount in the teachers domain. Respect must enter into the basic relationship between the teacher and his community of learners in order to create a receptive frame of  mind, and hypocrisy can never coexist with genuine respect. This accounts for the respect in which Azad was held not only by his friends and admires but also by his opponents.

                     From the beginning of accepting the ministerial responsibility, Azad tried to attend to almost all issues in education. He felt deeply concerned about the quality of education imparted in educational institutions and the contribution that teachers can make in this regard. He also believed that such a contribution can best be made by those who are systematically groomed as teachers. At the opening of the Central Institute of Education at Delhi on 19^th December, 1947 he thus stressed the need and significance of training of teachers for improving the quality of education. If we are not able to make arrangement for the primary education of thirty million of our children in the group six-eleven years all our nation building schemes will ipso facto, become valueless. The only way out, therefore, is to try to lift millions of these children from the depth of neglect and ignorance immediately. The quest is how best to solve this problem. The greatest hurdle facing us is lack of trained teachers. Instead of postponing our schemes for want of trained teachers, we should mobilize as teachers all the educated persons available and at the same time carry on the training of the teachers with the greatest possible speed, so that trained teachers can be made available in sufficient number in the shortest possible time. The Central and Provincial Governments while preparing the Five Year Plans, have to keep in view the recommendations of the CABE Committee(1944) given in the post-war educational development plan for establishment of new teacher training institutes. Such institutions have already been opened and are still being opened in different parts of the country.

                       (However, even after this attempt the number of training institutions remained abysmally and could not provide trained teachers as per requirement. Due to continued apathy of some state governments the situation continues to be same even today in some parts of the country which has led to large scale appointment of untrained teachers in schools. It is hoped that RTE Act will ultimately act as a catalyst in this direction).

                      Referring to the roe that was charted for CIE, Azad said, “While this institute will turn out teachers who will be Model teachers for provinces, but over and above this, the institute will be a research centre for solving new educational problems of the country and will be a beacon of light for the teacher training institutes of the country.

Challenges: The Constitution of India visualizes a national system of education supported by national policies and appropriate organs of consultation and coordination; but by and large the task of implementating policies depends upon the efforts and resources of the States. Maulana Azad’s towering personality and political status helped national planning, but could not ensure the actual implementation of national policies by the States. Hopes ran high and efforts were not lacking but the euphoria of that time came up against stubborn realities. Neither sufficient material resources nor a strong enough political will emerged to surmount those realities. Towards the end of his life, Maulana Azad made a sad onfession to a meeting of the Central Advisory Board of Education in 1958.

                      You will all remember that we have faced one difficult after another since the first day of independence. When I assumed charge of Education in 1947, I immediately saw that there would be no solution of our educational problems without the fullest co-operation of the Center and Provinces. Education was, no doubt, a provincial subject but it was my considered opinion that this distinction could be maintained only hen our educational targets have been achieved. Until such time, the Central Government, should openly recognize that though education is a provincial subject, it must share the responsibility with the provincial government, if we are to meet the challenge of the time.

                      (I appointed a committee underthe chairmanship of the late B.G. Kher, then Chief Minister of Bombay, who prepared a scheme for the introduction of universal elementary and free education in sixteen years provided the center undertakes to meet at least thirty percent of the expenses. I regret to say that we have not been able to give effect to this scheme. India is a democracy where the Cabinet has joint responsibility. I am, therefore equally responsible with my colleagues for our failure in implementing the proposals of the Kher Committee).

                     One of our difficulties has been that some of my colleagues regarded education to be a purely provincial subject and did not, therefore think it necessary that the Central Government should provide adequate FUNDS for it. Even when the Planning Commission was set up, the situation did not at first change. When the first draft  of the First Plan was made education was almost completely ignored. There seemed to be a general view that we should take up only subjects which would give quick returns. Since they held that education could not do this, education was left out of this first draft. It was for Azad’s charismatic influence that education was later given due to place in the Five Year Plan and as a result many developments took place in this field with the support of the Central Government. At the time of independence of teacher training institutions were providing trained teachers to schools. Those included Basic Teacher Training Institutes, training teacher for basic schools, normal schools producing teachers for modern primary schools and teacher and teacher training colleges preparing teachers for high schools. Due to persistent emphasis of Azad a number of these institutions was gradually increasing but the pace of expansion in their number was very slow. As a result proportion of untrained teachers in schools continued to remain quite high. For example, the proportion of untrained teachers in primary schools in 1949-50 was 41.4% which came down to 41.2% in 1950-51 and to 38.8% in 1955-56. Similarly in secondary schools their proportion in 1949-50 i.e. 46.4% which remained almost the same (46.7%) in 1950-51 and came down to 41.5% in 1955-56. One important  was first expansion in enrolments during first plan period sand enhanced demand for opening schools and induction of additional teachers in these schools. For example in 1950-51 there were 209671 primary schools with 5.38 lakh teachers which rose to 278135 schools with 6.91 lakh teachers. The number of upper primary/middle schools in 1950-51 was 13596 with 0.86 lakh teachers in 1955-56. The number of training schools during this period however went up from 782 to 930 and training colleges from 53 to 107 only. Azad wanted to follow a different model of teacher training and their retraining for basic schools which was a model for primary schools during his days. He wanted the training programme for basic schools should split into two oarts, both proceeding simultaneously, one concentrating on quality education which can grow only slowly and the outer on those basic skills, like organized communicy living, craft work etc. on the job training. In the first Five Year Plan he also emphasized that most teachers need retraining for the purpose of educational reorganization in the country, while at the same time expansion in teacher training facilities should receive high priority. Limited budgetary allocation in the Plan for education in general and for teacher education in particular constraint the implementation of both the proposals to any degree of satisfaction.

                       Though Azad blamed the mechanisms of the state, ‘the legacy of the governmental procedures’ and ‘the inertia of the machine, for the lack of accomplishment in educational matters. Yet he succeeded in registering notable achievements in almost every domain of education which set the tone and direction of educational development in the country in the days to come. He observed in his speech in 1958 that the progress which has been achieved in spite of these difficulties can be measured by the fact that when I assumed charge, the Central budget for education was only about Rs. 2 crores and is today considerably more than Rs. 30 crores. It is not only the financial allocation which has been increased, but there has been expansion in all types of activities.

Criticism:

                       During his life and in contemporary times, Maulana Azad has been criticized for not doing enough to prevent the participation of India although he was committed to united India till his last attempt. He was condemned by the advocates of Pakistan, especially Muslim League.

Legacy and influence:

                      Azad is remembered as amongst the leading Indian nationalists of his time. His firm belief in Hindu-Muslim unity earned him the respect of the Hindu community and he still remains one of the most important symbols of communal harmony in modern India. His work for education and social upliftment in India made him an important influence in guiding India’s economic and social development.

Abdulkalam Azad tomb:

                     The ministry of Minority Affairs of the central Government of India set up the Maulana Azad Education Foundation in 1989 on the occasion of his birth centenary to promote education amongst educationally backward sections of the Society. The Ministry also provides the Maulana Abul Kalam Azad National Fellowship, an integrated five-year fellowship in the form of financial assistance to students from minority communities to pursue higher studies such as M.Phil. and Ph.D.

Review Questions

           1.      Write briefly about the ancient system of Education.

           2.      Explain the Chief Characteristics of education during the Buddhist period.

           3.      Write the merits and demerits of British System of Education.

          4.      What are the merits and demerits of Medieval Period of Education?

          5.      Write briefly Macaulay Minutes.

           6.      Write the recommendations of Sergeant commission.

           7.      Write the salient features of NPE - 1986.

          8.      Write the salient features of POA – 1992.

          9.      Write the salient features of NCF – 2005.

        10.  Describe the position of women education in India during the medieval period.

         11.  Write the salient features of Hunter Commission.

         12.  Write the salient features of Hartog Commission.

          13.  What are the thoughts of Education according to Ravindranath Tagore? Explain.

         14.  What are the thoughts of Education according to Mahatma Gandhi? Explain.

         15.  What are the thoughts of Education according to Aurobindo Ghosh? Explain.

        16.  What are the thoughts of Education according to Jiddu Krishnamurthy? Explain.