PHYSICAL AND
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Meaning of
Physical growth:
One of the chief characteristics of a living organism is its ability to grow. A seeding grows into a plant which, in course of time grows into a huge tree. A child in due course turns into an adult. In living organisms grow takes place by multiplication of cell. Every living structure grows to a certain limit; it cannot grow on growing all the time through life.
One of the chief characteristics of a living organism is its ability to grow. A seeding grows into a plant which, in course of time grows into a huge tree. A child in due course turns into an adult. In living organisms grow takes place by multiplication of cell. Every living structure grows to a certain limit; it cannot grow on growing all the time through life.
By physical growth, it
means the progressive development of the various parts of the body and their
capacity to function. Physical growth is determined by a variety of factors,
some of which are difficult to understand. These factors may be classified as
internal and external. The internal factors include heredity, sex, secretion of
the ductless or endocrine glands etc. Some of the important external factors
are sunlight, air, food, fatigue, exercise and work. Seasons of the year is
another external factor influencing growth. The maximum gain in weight takes
place between October and December and the minimum gain between April and June.
The initial changes
immediately after birth, include the expansion of the lungs and certain changes
in the circulation of blood. The growth of the brain during the first year is
very rapid. The bones start growing in length and thickness. The milk-teeth
start erupting from the sixth to the eighth month. By two and a half years, all
the twenty teeth of the first set should have erupted. These teeth start
falling of after six years and the teeth of permanent set normally erupts by
the 25th year. About the age of 13 years, the individual starts attaining
sexual maturity. At this age, called the age of puberty, girls start menstruating
and show the secondary sexual characters: in males, similarly, at puberty,
secondary sexual characters appear and voice breaks due to the changes in the
larynx. Complete growth is attained by the age of 16 years in girls 20 years in
boys.
The process
of physical growth:
The growth process of the
human beings can be conveniently divided into the following stages.
i.
The stage of infancy
ii.
The stage of early childhood
iii.
The stage of later childhood
iv.
The stage of adolescence
I.
PHYSIAL GROWTH
DURING INFANCY:
Infancy is the period of
rapid growth and rapid development. There is rapid growth in terms of height,
weight and size which leads to changes in shape and proportion. Physical growth
is accompanies by motor activity.
General
Characteristics: In the first few weeks of
life, the infant has no control over his body. Gradually, he learns to lift up
his chin when lying on his stomach. Around two months, he learns to smile a
little. Between three and four months, his neck muscles grow stronger and he
learns to hold his head up. By now he has also started cooing and gurgling and
his salivary glands are active. His eyesight becomes steady and when a dangling
toy is tied to his crib, he can fix his eyes on it and also turn his head to
follow it, if removed. He can have a strong hold on any object near him; but by
six months he can reach for it and grasp it by six months, as found by Gesell, a baby is able to sit with a
slight support. Between 9 to 18 months the child rapidly learns to creep to stand
with support to climb stairs to walk and is constantly moving about.
Growing in
Height and Weight: An easily noticeable aspect of physical growth changes in height
and weight. Studies have shown that at birth, the infant is on average 20” long
and weighs 7 pounds. During the first six months the weight of an average 0.2
pounds more than female infants. At the end of two years, there is increase in
arms and legs and he learns to walk also. By the time the infant reaches a
height of 28.25 inches, his weight increases to 19.7 pounds. The average female
baby of the height of 28.25inches weighs 19.3 pounds. However, averages in
height and weight cannot be regarded as applying to any one individual because
very wide variations are found among growing children. Body proportions besides
changes in height and weight growth in large muscles affects body proportions.
Finger and hand muscles show less growth. The growth of the skeleton is not
regular for all its component parts and there is a wide range of body built.
The skeletal growth is shown by many facts such as the contrast between the
size of the skull and the bones of the arms and the legs. Changes are also
noticeable in respect of cutting teeth. At first there are no teeth, than the
baby teeth appear which are followed by different sets.
Some other changes: There are many
other changes which are connected with digestion, respiration, toilet habits
etc. Changes also occur in nerve and glands and in reproductive glands. The
baby bones are more pliable and the joints are less firm. There is greater
scope for environmental influences. There is always danger of infection because
of low clarification.
II.
PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD:
During the
period of childhood there are marked changes inking place in the child both
physically and psychologically. None of these changes, says Hurlock. The period of early childhood
which extends from two years to five or six years is significant on two counts.
i.
It is period during which the child is prepared for entry into a
place of formal education.
ii.
It is the convenient dividing line between early and late
childhood.
According to Hurlock, “This dividing line is
significant because as the child leaves the home, environment and enters the
school, new pressures and new expectations result in marked changes in patterns
of behavior, attitude and values”.
The following features of
physical development during the period of early childhood are significant.
1. General
nature of growth: This period is marked by physical growth and motor development.
Some of the bodily changes accompanying growth are concrete and visible. The
most important of these is increase in height and weight. At five years of age,
the average child will have gained about nine inches in height from that of age
two.
A weight
gain of about four or five pounds per year will also be found. Here again,
there difference between slow growing and fast growing. In the case of healthy
children, the growth is comparatively more rapid. There is also muscular
development and some development in muscular coordination. Different parts of
the body such as head, hands, arms, legs etc. grow proportionately. The nervous system also grows and develops
and there is marked improvement in the functioning f sensory organs.
2. Motor
Development: There is a lot of motor development and muscular coordination.
This enables a child to perform various types of essential activities like
walking, running, jumping, throwing etc. The child pays instant attention to
noise, sound, color and light. He begins to recognize faces and expressions the
feelings of pleasure and pain through facial expressions
According to
Gesell, a five year is poised and
controlled with an economy of movement and an adeptness with fingers and hands
adeptness. Again the influence of learning may be readily seen in such skills
as talking, writing and buttoning clothes. In a study conducted by Gutteridge, it was indicated that a
fair proportion of children are proficient in some motor activities before the
age of three years. However, they become proficient in climbing, jumping and
catching of balls, recycling and so on by the time they are four or five years
of age. Sex variations are also noticeable.
3. Lymphatic
System: Another point worth nothing is the prominence
of the lymphatic system during this period. These lymph glands are found in the
region of the neck, under arm and various other parts of the body. Tonsils and
adenoids are behind the soft palate where the nasal passages join the throat.
These glands and ducts are larger and more numerous in childhood. In the second
and third years, the tonsils become larger, reaching maximum size at four or
five years.
4. Each
child has his own tempo of growth: It is important to note that each child has
his own tempo of growth. Some children grow slower during the early years and
faster later. Boys and girls grow at different rates. It is found that 60% of
the adult height is reached by girls at 31/2 years and
boys at 41/2 years.
III.
PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT DURING LATER CHILDHOOD (6 TO 12 YEARS)
The main
characteristics of development during this stage as follows:
1.
Slow but
steady growth:
Whereas the
infancy and early childhood are the periods of rapid growth and development,
the stage of later childhood is characterized as the period of slow, steady and
uniform growth. Development rate, although uniform is very slow at this stage.
The average height of the child at twelve is about 58 inches and he weighs
between 95 and 100 pounds. There is a tendency to grow slim but tall. Sex
difference also influences the physical growth at this stage. For example, on
the average a girl grows later than a boy. Maturity is reached about two years
earlier among girls than boys. Moreover, bones become harder, the milk-teeth
are replaced by permanent teeth and resistance to disease increases.
2.
Motor
development:
In addition
to this, muscles become stronger and the development of motor skills becomes
more specific. The child gains better controls over his muscles and there is a
better coordination and integration in his activities. There is marked increase
in manipulation and speed and child possesses greater strength and endurance.
The child moves in an atmosphere of freedom and he wants to do and manipulate
many things. He likes to engage himself in physical games and playful
activities.
3.
Years of
healthy growth:
These are
the years of healthy growth. At the age of 9 or 10, children engage themselves
in various types of outdoor games such as swimming and skating, hockey and cricket
etc. The seeds of early peer group are shown.
Educational
Implications of Physical and Motor Development:
A. PERIOD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD:
i.
Rich and
balanced diet: Early childhood begins an age of rapid growth and development, the
children must be provided with a rich and balanced diet at this stage. Any
deficiency of diet at this stage may have serious repercussions at a later
stage and the growth of the child may be retarded.
ii.
Training in
good habits: The child must be trained in acquiring good habits of personal
cleanliness and hygiene.
iii.
Child to be
gradually made independent: The child must be encouraged to do many of
the routine things himself; full dependence of the child must gradually give
way to his independence.
iv.
Play: Play is the
most dominating instinct at this stage. It is a important part of child’s life
during this period. Therefore, play activities involving maximum use of limbs
should be provided to the children to facilitate better motor development.
v.
Self-expression:
The child
must be allowed to move about in a wider sphere, so that he develops in the art
of self-expression and command over the language.
B. PERIOD OF LATER CHILDHOOD:
i.
Parents to
take proper care of food: For proper physical development, the parents should take proper
care of food and child’s personal hygiene. They should see that the child is
physically healthy and in al respects. At school, provision should be made for
indoor and outdoor games during and after school hours.
ii.
Physical and
practical activities: Emphasis should be placed on physical and practical activities.
Dignity of labor should also be emphasized.
iii.
Good and
healthy: Habits
should be developed in children. The virtues of moderation and a disciplined
life should be impressed upon children.
iv.
Self-expression:
The children
must be allowed the fullest possible self-expression through various types of
co-curricular activities. Games and sports should also be provided for their
physical and social development.
v.
Sympathetic
atmosphere: Sympathetic and affection type of atmosphere should be provided at
home as well as in the school, so that the child develops into a well-balanced
personality.
2.1
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive development is
an important aspect of growth, embracing the various mental abilities. Mental
development includes such abilities as attending, perceiving, observing,
remembering, imagining, thinking, solving problems and growth of intelligence
as well as language. These abilities grow and mature with age. In spite of
general pattern of mental development, each individual grows and matures with
age and develops in his own unique manner.
The various mental
abilities are inter-related and develop as a whole. They are inter-dependent.
Moreover, mental development is a continuous process. The factors that affect
mental development include maturation, learning and education. Mental
development is a function of the nervous system, especially of the brain.
Stages in
Cognitive Development:
a) Development from birth to 2 years (Infancy stage): The child
inherits all the sensory equipment that is needed for mental activity. The
child shows evidence of his thinking ability at a very early age.
For example,
he tries to secure approval from his parents for the things he likes or he
does. The child’s curiosity is another characteristic of mental development at
this stage. He is curious to know about his immediate people and things around
him. He also develops the ability to differentiate people and things around
him. This is a period of rapid language development, which increases the
ability of expression of the child and self-expression is a potent means of
mental development. The child also acquires a variety of sensory and perceptual
experiences and these experiences contribute a lot towards his mental
development.
b) Development during early childhood (3 to 6 years): The child
begins think symbolically. The perception size, color, shape, time and distance
evolves. Memory increases rapidly thinking and reasoning develop in relation to
concrete materials.
c) Development of later childhood stage (7 to 12 years): This is a
period of rapid mental development. The child acquires a new interest in
studies and he takes pride in the increase of his knowledge. His sphere of
interests is also widened and he likes to meet people, converse and discuss
with them on various types of topics. This naturally leads to his further
mental development.
d) Development during adolescence (from 12 to 18 years): During this
period, the mental development riches its climax. The capacities and abilities
such as observation, perception, attention, memory, thinking reasoning and
intelligence are sharpened and increased, leading to a high degree of mental
development of the adolescent. This is also period of heightened imagination
and therefore, there is a great increase in the aesthetic sensibility of the
pupils. Creativity in arts is also a dominant characteristic of this period.
All this lends to a high degree of mental and intellectual development.
2.2 SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
Social
development according to the following psychologists:
1.
Francis F.
Powers: Social
development can be defined as, “The progressive improvement, through directed
activity of the individual in the comprehension of the social heritage and the
formation of flexible conduct patterns of reasonable conformity with this
heritage”.
In this
sense social development emphasizes the fact that growth must be progressive.
2.
Sorenson: “By social
growth and development we mean the increasing ability to get along well with
oneself and others”. This means that a socially developed person has accepted
tastes, attitudes and behavioral patterns.
3.
Hurlock, Social
development as the “attaining of maturity in social relationships”.
4.
Garret regards
social development as the process whereby “the biological individual is
converted into a human person”.
5.
Freeman
&Shovel: Social development is the process of learning to confirm to group standards, mores
and traditions and becoming imbued with a sense of onenss, inter-communication
and cooperation.
1. Infancy:
Social Development
Once the
individual is born, his existence cannot be maintained in the absence of
society. Initially the mother alone constitutes the child’s entire society,
because in the first four or five weeks of his life, her face is the one he
sees most often and gradually comes to recognize. In three or four months, the
child’s social tendency begins to develop, as a result of which the crying or
laughing child falls silent upon seeing a stranger. In 3 or 4 month, the
child’s social tendency begins to develop, as a result of which the crying or
laughing child falls silent upon seeing a stranger. At the age of 6 or 7
months, the child begins to recognize members of his family. When he grows to 9
months he learns to crawl towards his mother or some person with whom he is
acquainted. At the age of 2 years, he learns to play with other children of his
own age. When he becomes 3 years old, he begins taking interest in collective
or group activities, by the age of 6 years, he begins participating in
collective games.
L.D. Crow has pointed out that, as compared to the earlier-stage,
the child now begins to differentiate between the concepts of ‘I’ and ‘You’. He
becomes familiar with other children. He continues to act on the principle that
whatever belongs to him is undoubtedly his own, but he also becomes gradually
aware of the fact that whatever belongs to another undoubtedly belongs to that
person. When the child approaches the age of three years, perhaps he begins to
understand that whatever belongs to him also belongs to another that is he
learns to share his own possessions with others.
As Elizabeth Hurlock has explained, the child learns to adapt himself
to the collective life of other children, to share things with them and to make
his play fellows participants in his own possessions.
To put it in simple terms,
the fact is that a child’s social development means the child’s socialization.
Commenting on the growth of socialization, McIver
and Havinghurst have clarified
that socialization is the process through which the various possibilities of
individual behavior are conjoined with the society’s approval or disapproval of
them, so as to enable the individual to choose the approved patterns of
behavior and reject the disapproved ones.
2.
Childhood: Social Development
The
beginning of childhood marks the formal entrance of the child in social life. It
is in childhood that moves out of the home and goes to school, where he sees
many other children like himself. It is here that he develops the tendency
towards gregariousness, towards forming groups and becoming a member of gangs.
Friendliness begins to manifest itself. It has also been seen that it is in
this stage that the Oedipus and Electra complexes begin to develop.
i.
The Oedipus complex is the tendency of the child to love his
mother much more. The name of this complex is derives from the mythological
character Oedipus who, with the help of his sister, murdered his father and
married his own mother. It is for this reason that a child’s love for his
mother, especially when exaggerated is referred to as the Oedipus complex.
ii.
Similarly the growth of the Electra complex in girls leads to
their excessive love for their fathers. A girl named Electra killed her mother
with the help of her brother and then married her own father. This is the
reason why that this complex is known as the Electra complex.
In childhood there is a deep
affection for the persons of the other sex, manifested most strongly and openly
towards the parents, but it is also noticed in the deep attachment between
brothers and sisters.
3.
Adolescence: Social Development
In adolescence, the child’s social development
comes under the influence of his interests, needs and sense of security or
insecurity etc. In this stage adolescents are very sensitive towards their
environment, but at the same time, the adolescent’s social development is also
profoundly influenced by his physical growth. Weak, sickly disabled or
handicapped adolescents tend to develop abnormalities and suffer from
maladjustment.
In adolescence, the
important features of social development can be outlined as follows:
i.
Similarity
of Objectives: Similarly of objectives in adolescence leads to the birth of firm
and permanent friendships. However in forming friendships, adolescents keep in
mind interests, aptitudes and social and economic status. There is not much
significance in proximity of residence.
ii.
Social
acceptability: Adolescents become aware of
the fact that they have social acceptability at some places but not at others.
They come to feel that their parents do not make an effort to understand them
or give them adequate independence, especially in decision making.
iii.
Sex Drive: Because of
the powerful manifestation of the sex drive in adolescence, girls and boys like
to meet and talk each other and to participate jointly in social activities.
Where healthy social relations between girls and boys fail to develop,
relations with members of the same sex are established.
iv.
Sociability:
Sociability
develops to such an extent in adolescents that they are usually eager to make
sacrifices for the honor and dignity of their friends or their group. For this
purpose, they obey every command given by the leader of the group.
v.
Maturity: The social
development of girls is marked by greater maturity. However they take greater
interest in talking about boys or reading books about them.
vi.
Social
Awareness: Social awareness grows at rapid pace in adolescents. The
adolescent wants to win praise from his parents as well as acquaintances. He
easily becomes annoyed and insists upon the fulfillment of his wish, his
behavior is characterized by selfishness.
2.3
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
During the process of
growth and development, every individual undergoes distinct emotional
experiences, specific to that particular stage of development. Emotions which
is said to be the springs of life time actions, occupy a special field of study
for a student of education and psychology and bear special significance for a
teacher.
Nature of
Emotion:
Emotion is
defined as:
i.
Derivative
Meaning: In
its derivative meaning, emotion may be defined as the stirred up or the excited
or the disturbed state of mind. The word ‘emotion’ is itself derived from the
Latin word ‘emovere’ which means to ‘stir up’ to ‘excite’ or to ‘agitate’.
ii.
Gates defines emotions
as “episodes in which the individual is moved or excited”.
iii.
Woodworth defines
“Emotion is a moved or stirred up state of an organism. It is disturbed
muscular and glandular activity”.
iv.
McDougall defines
“Emotion is the made up experience that accompanies the working of an
instinctive impulse. In this theory, every instinct is accompanied by a
specific emotion. The fourteen emotions which accompany the fourteen instincts
are known as prime emotions”.
v.
Hoff Ding speaks of
“Emotion as a sudden boiling up of feeling which, for a time overwhelms the
mind”.
From the above definitions, we
conclude that emotion is a complex of feelings, a general stirring up of the
individual, physically and mentally, a state of intensified excitement. When a
person is undergoing an emotional outburst, he gets sudden increase in the
heart beat, change in blood pressure, irregular respiration and marked change
in his facial expression.
General
characteristics of Emotions:
1.
Every emotion is followed by physiological change such as rapid
heartbeat, change in the pulse rate, change in blood pressure, change in the
facial expression, voice and body movements.
2.
Emotion is accompanied by a feeling of pleasantness and
unpleasantness, following physiological changes.
3.
Emotions are subjective and purely individual. The same situation
may evoke different emotional state which lasts for sometimes.
4.
Emotion is a tri-polar response having affective, cognitive and
conative aspects.
5.
Emotions have wide range and are not restricted to a particular
age period. They occur to children, adolescents and adults.
6.
Emotions rise abruptly. The passing away emotions is however slow,
leaving behind an emotional state which lasts for sometimes.
7.
Emotions have swings. One emotion may give rise to another emotion
and the two may get merged.
8.
An emotion mostly rises when the organism faces a difficult
situation or when the basic need is challenged or is not satisfied.
Children’s emotions are not as
natural and long-standing as those of adults. Their emotions are characterized
by sudden and intense outburst, are transitory more frequent and are easily
expressed.
Characteristics
of Childhood Emotionality:
Hurlock in her book
‘Child Development’ has beautifully listed the following characteristics of
childhood emotionality which distinguish the emotions of children from those of
adults.
a) Children’s emotions are brief: Young child’s emotions last only
a few minutes and then end abruptly. By expressing her emotion, he simply clears
his system and as a result the emotion lasts for a relatively short time.
b) Children’s emotions are intense: Young
child’s emotions are marked by intensity which is seldom observed in the
emotional reactions of an adult. There are no gradations in the emotional
response of a child.
c) Children’s emotions are transitory: By
transitory we mean shifting and there is shifting of emotions from tears to
smiles, from jealous to affection. It also means change in emotional reactions.
d) Children’s emotions appear frequently: Children’s
emotions appear more frequently than those of a typical adult. This reason is
that as the child grows older, he has greater ability to make adjustments to
situations that justifiably call forth emotional reactions that he had when he
was younger and less secured.
e) Children’s emotional responses are different: There is a
whole variability in the emotional responses of children. An example will
illustrate this – One child in fear will run out of room, another may hide
behind his mother’s shirt or so on.
f) Children express their emotions directly or as they feel them: Whereas in
adults, the responses are direct and they know how to hide their emotions.
Emotional
development in various stages:
i.
Infancy (0-2
years):
Garrison is of the
view that the infant is poorly endowed emotionally. However, the baby exhibits
much behavior that seems to have an emotional quality as and when he thrashes
his limbs. On the whole, early in this stage emotion, if at all they exist,
they exist in undifferentiated and diffused form. They develop as a result of
maturation and training. In the first year there is only one emotional response
and that is of general excitement. As the baby grows, the emotional responses
become less diffused and can be distinguished.
According to J.B. Watson the emotions of fear, anger and love are identified
even in very young infant. Anger is more developed and very soon the child
learns to say ‘No’.
In another study, Bridges observed 62 infants from two
weeks to two years of age. She found undifferentiated excitement at the initial
stage. However, she found that at about three weeks of age, emotional
differentiation in the infant began.
ii.
Early
Childhood (2-6 years):
It is at this stage that the emotions begin
to show themselves up in differentiated from. The two streams of emotions
differentiated from excitement, the unpleasant, disruptive emotions such as
anger and fear and the pleasant, integrative emotions will again provide a
framework for discussion. Maturation continues to play its part. If a child is
not handled properly, he will develop into an emotionally immature person. The
chief characteristics of emotion in early childhood is that the emotions are spontaneous
and the child cannot control them till he reaches later childhood. There is
decline in overt expression of emotions. Early childhood is invariably a period
of heightened emotionally. The emotions of the child are intense. Common
emotions of children in early childhood are fear, anger and jealousy.
iii.
Later
Childhood (6-12 years):
This is the period
of stability and control. The emotional expressions are restrained and very
soon the child learns that violent expression of emotions is not acceptable and
it is ‘babyish’ to express the emotions everytime. But, it in anyway, does not
mean that the emotional life of the child is not rich. He has pleasant emotions
too and expresses them. He laughs and enjoys being laughed with. Although there
is increased differentiation of emotional expressions, there is gradual decline
in the exhibition of overt expressions. There is a shift from the wholehearted
and violent reactions to more subdued responses. Garrison is of the view that the child who at the age of 9 months
shrieks and cries with his “Whole self, withholds his emotional expressions”.
Why is it that the child learns to control his emotions? It is because at this
stage, what matters is social prestige of the child; in later childhood, he
shuns the very idea of expressing his emotions directly.
iv.
Emotional
Development of an Adolescent:
“There is a
tide which begins to rise in the veins of youth at the age of eleven or twelve.
It is called by the name of adolescence. If this tide can be taken at the
flood, voyage begins in the strength and along the flow of its current, we will
think that it will move on to fortune”.
According to the Hadow Report of England, adolescence is an interesting period to
the teacher and an exciting period between late childhood and adulthood. It is
called the spring of life. It is attractive but uneven, insecure and strange
path from childhood to maturity. It is the period when growth takes place in
all its aspects of life- physical, mental, social, moral and emotional aspects.
Emotionally speaking adolescence is
the period of emotional imbalance, strain and stress. This emotional stress, as
evidenced by recent experiments, is not inherent in the period. It is due to
certain factors in the environment and cultural traditions that this period
acquires a certain amount of stress and strain. The factors include uncertain
physical changes, unexpected rapid sexual development, lack of status, gap
between what the adolescent expects of himself and what his parents expect of
him, uncertain experiences with the opposite sex and many of other complications.
The adolescent find himself in conflict with himself and many a time, is in
conflict with his family or society. Sometimes he goes into easy fits of anger
and sometimes he represses his emotions. If the sex urge is not given a healthy
outlet, he succumbs to homo-sexuality or self-gratification. This leads to a
sense of guilt and sin against himself. The present trend of vocational
insecurity is another cause of emotional disturbance on the part of the
adolescent.
Emotional Maturity:
Emotional
maturity is the result of healthy emotional development. Many attempts have
been made to define ‘emotional maturity’. Many a time, it has been understood
in negative terms. The prominent features in some of the definitions has been
that, emotional maturity essential involves emotional control.
Educational
implications of Emotional development:
1.
Teacher’s
role in emotional training:
Emotions and
feelings are the prime movers of human activity. They are connected with the
specific modes of activity important for the development of the individual and
his relationship with the society. Emotions are the main springs of human
behavior and have, therefore tremendous importance in the theory and practice
of education. Proper emotional training of the young, growing child – often
called the little savage – is highly desirable to fit him to hold a place in
the civilized society. Thus, emotional training is an important task with the
teacher if he values physical, mental and social health of his pupils. Development
of character is very dependent on sound emotional health of the individual.
Emotions can
be trained by the following methods:
i) Sublimation, ii) Catharsis, that
is giving a free outlet to emotions, iii)Redirection, iv)Mental occupation,
that is making the child do something, v) Co-curricular activities, vi)
Creating healthy environment, vii) Inhibition and repression, viii) Punishment
if needed.
2.
Teacher’s
personal emotional stability is very important: Example is
better than precept. A teacher who does not fall back to fits of anger nor
loses temperament is sure to leave a healthy impression on his pupil. The
teacher is likely to be caught in a number of tense situations inside the
classroom or in the playground. He must give a proof of emotional balance
without getting irritated on small accounts. The teacher should be careful that
his home life does not interfere with his professional life. He must ignore
small acts of mischief of his pupils. He should treat his pupils kindly and
sympathetically. He should help the emotionally disturbed pupil and should give
him his confidence.
3.
Unnecessary
frequent punishments should be avoided: He should avoid such remarks as would hurt
the child’s ego. He should own the student and respect his personality.
4.
Congenial
atmosphere: Congenial atmosphere is necessary for the emotional health of
students. Teachers should behave themselves in their interpersonal
relationship. The school atmosphere should give the pupils a sense of
belonging and a feeling of security.
5.
Opportunities
for self-expression are helpful in creating emotional stability. Proper literary
facilities, provision for games and sports, organization of debates,
declamations, dramatics etc. are a number of activities which the teacher can
arrange in the school for giving an outlet to children’s pent-up emotions and
repressed feelings.
6.
Self-government
in school is
another important means of teaching self-restraint, self-discipline and a code
of conduct to the children which no external agent can teach. This satisfies
their ego, gives them a feeling of responsibility and helps them in sound
mental health.
7.
Positive
Suggestion can help in the formation of positive sentiments. Negative
suggestions disturb emotional as well as mental balance. The teacher should
avoid negative suggestions.
8.
Educational
guidance and counseling is highly desirable in schools. If a whole time counselor is not
available, the teacher should perform this job also. The teacher should win
over the confidence of his students to the extent that they do not think in
bringing even their personal problems to him. The teacher should do his best in
helping them overcome their problems.
9.
Occasional
visits to
children’s homes help the teacher in knowing them better. This would also help
him in detecting certain problems which have their origin in the child’s home
and are likely to upset him. The teacher can take positive steps in this
regard.
2.4 MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
The word ‘Moral’ and all
its derivations come from the Latin term ‘Mos’ which means manner, custom and
habit.
Moral development is one of
the important phases of the development process of the individual. Moral
development means learning social or moral values which include lessons about
honesty, kindness, charity, service, obedience and the like. Moral development
may also refer to learning what is right and what is wrong.
Stages of
Moral Development:
1.
Stage of
Infancy (0-3 years):
The child’s
first and probably the most impressive experience with ‘Right’ and ‘Wrong’,
‘Good’ and ‘Bad’ is in toilet training. As children develop through infancy,
they are able to make an increasing number of choices and they start tolerating
increasing restrictions. By the time they are two years of age, they may show
apparent feeling of guilt. At three plus, the mere thought of a forbidden act
may cause guilt feeling.
2.
Early
Childhood (3-8 years):
The children
at this age think of good and bad only in terms of specific acts approved or
disapproved by parents. These ideals of good and bad take shape in obeying
elders, helping co-fellows, in mutual give and take. Children want to feel that
they have done what is right. Wrong actions leave them worried and unhappy.
The children shows sense of
responsibility when they are made to go to a grocery store, the playground or
the homes of friends, if the parents do not expect too much consistency, these
children can help in such tasks as setting the dining table, washing dishes,
making their beds and tidying up their rooms.
The children are also interested in
the idea of God. They like visiting religious places, places of rituals etc.
They enjoy listening to stories which end up in a moral.
3.
Late
Childhood (8-13 years):
At this stage of his development, the
child can make substantial growth in his understanding of the notions of the
right and wrong. He develops tolerance, honesty and justice.
An important thing in the moral
development of the child in this stage is the conflict between the morality at
home and that of the gang. In manners, speech and general behavior, the gang
will have the maximum influence. In matters of religion and race attitude, the
influence will prevail.
4.
Adolescence:
Adolescence is the crucial period in
the life of an individual. At this stage, the adolescent is expected to replace
the specific moral concepts of childhood with general moral principles. His
moral behavior is the result of internal control rather than the external
imposition. As a child he accepted the concepts of right and wrong as preached
by his parents or elders around him without questioning. As an adolescent, he
questions everything that does not conform to his own moral code. This moral
code, the roots of which go back to his childhood are now changed and modified
to meet his mature level of development.
The adolescent finds a number of
inconsistencies in the moral concepts of people around him. The adolescent is
easily confused. In spite of this confusion most young adolescents are able to
work out a code of moral standard which differs from that of their childhood
days which will serve them well not only now but also after they reach
maturity.
The
following are important aspects of the moral development in an Adolescent:
i.
Development
of conscience is an important factor. Social expectations provide the adolescent
with necessary motivation to develop his conscience. It is here that guilt and
shame enter as important factors in internal control of the adolescent
behavior.
ii.
Setting of
higher moral standards is natural for an adolescent. This happens since the young
adolescent has taken moral matters into his own hands. When his own behavior or
that of others falls short of the standards set by him, he feels guilty and
suffers from a troubled conscience.
iii.
Need of
Discipline: Adolescents feel the need of discipline but not of the type they
had in childhood. They want guidance with reasonable explanations for what they
are expected to do; they resent authoritarian discipline. They do not mind
punishment if fair and just. They at the same time, expect appreciation for
their right behavior.
iv.
Shades of
Moral Behavior: The following are major shade of moral behavior exhibited by an
adolescent.
a)
Misdemeanors:
A
misdemeanor is a willful defiance of rules. Common school misdemeanors include
annoying the teacher, whispering, bullying classmates, smoking, drinking,
cheating, truancy, eye-teasing etc. Home misdemeanors include going out without
telling parents, going to forbidden places or meeting peers whom parents do not
like, staying out beyond time, running away from home.
b)
Juvenile
Delinquency: Juvenile delinquency is quite common at adolescent stage. It means
committing antisocial acts of a nature. Boys contribute more heavily to
juvenile delinquency than do girls. The percentage in urban areas is far
greater than in rural areas.
v.
Moral
Maturity: The
moral concepts of the older adolescent closely approximate those of the adult.
The adolescent knows what society expects from him. In late adolescent, the
individual becomes more tolerant towards his own and other’ shortcomings. A
morally mature individual understands that he cannot be a law unto himself. So
he follows the moral code of the society because he believes that it is the
right thing to do.
Factors
affecting Moral Development:
i.
Family: Family plays
an important role in a child’s moral development. His first initiation into the
mysteries of the good and the bad is through his parent’s acceptance or
rejection of his various actions. The actions which are approved by the parents
are regarded as good and those rejected by them are regarded as bad. The truth
remains that the foundations of a child’s moral development are laid in the
family.
ii.
School: School too
plays an important an important role in forming moral concepts. The child is
influenced by the notions of the good and the bad as a result of his
relationship with his classmates, teachers and senior students. The propriety
of his moral behavior depends to a great extent on his learning. Children
accept many things which they see their seniors doing in the school. Most of
what has been learnt at the mother’s knee is rejected. The teaching of moral
science and a programme of moral education go a long way in the moral
development of children and adolescents.
iii.
Peer Group: Children are
always in search of suitable companions for play. They are influenced by the
notions of good and bad that prevail among his chosen companions.
iv.
Society and
Culture: The
general social atmosphere also affects the moral development of the individual.
It is this reason why the moral behavior of individuals belonging to cultured
societies is markedly different from that of individuals belonging to
uncivilized societies.
v.
Age: Age is an
important factor in forming moral concepts and moral behaviors. As the
individual passes from infancy to adolescence, he becomes more tolerant towards
certain those ideals which sometimes do not tally with what he thinks to be
good. From unconditional obedience of his seniors in early and late childhood,
the individual becomes critical and defiant in early adolescence. But in later
adolescence he comes to accept many things which he had earlier rejected.
vi.
Sex: Sex also
plays an important in moral development. Girls are more seized with the sense
of guilt and shame if their behavior does not find propriety within the
accepted moral code. They try to be less critical of the moral tone of their
elders. Boys on the other hand are more aggressive than the girls and in most
cases, set their own standards of moral behavior and try to stick to them.
2.5 LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT
In the
opinion of Carl C. Garrison, the
language that a child has acquired before going to school is the best criterion
of his mental development. The development of linguistic ability also takes
place according to the principles characterizing other aspects of development.
1. Infancy:
Language Development
At the
moment of birth, the child usually lets out a cry and this is the first sound
it makes in this life. At this time, the child knows neither consonants nor
vowels. Up to age of 25 months, the various sounds produced by the child are
dominated by vowels. At the age of 10 months, the child usually speaks his
first word and then repeats very frequently. In the first yea, it is quite
difficult to understand the child’s language and it has to be interpreted by
inference. A study of the qualitative aspects of the vocabulary of children at
different age-levels indicates that there is an increase in the nature of
definitions of words. The mode of linguistic development in infancy is
influenced by the culture prevailing within the family.
2.
Childhood: Language Development
Children
undergo an increase in their rate of learning as they grow older and thus the time span for
every activity becomes gradually less and less. In childhood, the child learns
everything from single words to construction of sentences. The Hyder Brothers concluded from their studies
that:-
i) Linguistic
development is faster in the case of girls than that of boys.
ii) Girls
construct longer sentences than boys do.
iii) Girls are
more skilled in expressing their thoughts cogently.
The individual’s
linguistic development is profoundly influenced by the community home, school
and the family’s social and economic status. When the child sees an object, he
becomes aware of the concept associated with it. Subsequently, he derives
pleasure in expressing this concept.
3.
Adolescence: Language Development
The myriad
emotions aroused in the adolescent as a result of his startling physical
development in this period deeply influence the development of his linguistic
ability. Adolescents develop interest in reading literature. The growth of
their imaginations turns them towards poetry, stories and painting, with the
result that they express their feelings through these media. Love letters
written in adolescence are marked with very deep sentiment and hence they are
remarkably beautiful and affecting. Each conveys the deepest meaning.
Adolescents also develop
their vocabulary at a rapid rate. Language is essential even for animals, since
they must express their fear, hunger and sex desire through bodily gestures or
audible sounds. It is only natural, therefore that the adolescent, being a very
social creature, feels the need to express himself as best as he can. He
expresses the language he has learnt not only by writing it but also by
speaking it and imparting dramatic elements to it. Adolescents often develop a
‘Code’ language, which is written through the medium of certain signs or
symbols, the meaning of which is known only to individuals familiar with the
code. Adolescents use similar codes even in their spoken language. Through the
medium of language adolescents develop and increase their conceptions which are
symbolical of their preparation for the life ahead of them.
