MEDIEVAL
PERIOD – ISLAMIC & INDIAN PATHSALAS
The period under review
covers the system of education in India from about the 10the century A.D. to
the middle of the 18th century, i.e. before the British rule. India
witnessed a large number of Mohammedan invasions in the beginning of the eighth
century A.D. Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India and looted wealth, later on
established permanent empire in India.
During the period of Muslim rulers, they introduced a new system of
education. This period was known as Dark Age in the history of India.
Medieval period witnessed
a radical transformation in the Indian subcontinent. The country was invaded by
various foreign rulers and several traders from around the world came and
settled in the country. The tradesmen and the invaders brought with them their
own cultures and intermingled with the people of the each district of the
state. In fact, the education during the Muslim period was much inferior than
that of the Hindu period. No Muslim ruler except Akbar did commendable works in
the field of education. Education in medieval India flourished mostly during
the Mughal rule from the beginning of 1526 until the end of Mughal political
presence in 1848.
However, before the
advent of the Muslims in India, there was a developed system of education, but
Education in medieval India was shaped with the founding of the institutions of
learning. Muslim rulers promoted urban education by bestowing libraries and
literary societies. They founded primary schools (maktabs) in which students
learned reading, writing and basic Islamic prayers and secondary schools
(madrasas) to teach advanced language skills in India. Several Madrasas were
set up by Sultans, nobles and their influential ladies. The main objective of
these Madrasas was to train and educate scholar who would become eligible for
the civil service as well as performing duties as judge.
Iltusmish was the first
to establish a madrasa at Delhi, naming it “Madrasah-e-Muizzi”, after the name
of Muizzudin Muhammad Ghori. Balban, the Chief Minister of Sultan Nasiruddin
Mahmud, founded “Madrasah Nasiriyya” after the name of his master. Minhajus
Siraj, the author of “Tabaqat Nasiri”, was appointed its principal. Gradually
many madrasas came into being. In Muhammad Tughlag’s period there were 1000
madrasas only in Delhi. Sultan Firoz Shah founded “Madrasah Firoz Shahi” on the
southern side of the Hauz Khaz in Delhi. There were many Madrasahs in small and
big, rural and urban areas. However, the important scholars were only in the
madrasah of important centers.
CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSLIM EDUCATION
1)
Patronage
of the rulers: The rulers helped in the spread of
education. They built educational institutions and universities. They endowed
them with the funds. Big landlord also provided financial help for the spread
of education. The rulers patronized the men of learning.
2)
Religion
dominated education: In the words of S.N. Mukherji, “The
whole educational system was saturated with the religious ideals which
influenced the aim, the contents of study and even the daily life of the
pupils”. The pupils acquired knowledge as a religious obligation.
3)
Aims
of Education: The foremost aim of education
during the Muslim period was the extension of knowledge and the propagation of
Islam. During this period education was imparted for the propagation of Islamic
principles, laws and social conventions. Education was based on religion and
its aim was to make persons religious minded. It further aimed as the achievement
of material prosperity.
Aims
of education:
a)
Developing love for Muslim culture
and religion.
b)
Enabling the individual for Islamic
life.
c)
Preparing the students for the next
world.
d)
Equipping the students for a
vocation.
e)
Preparing individuals for running
administration.
4)
Organization
of Education: Education was organized in
‘Maktabs’ and ‘Madrasas’. Primary education was given in ‘Maktabs’ and higher
education was given in ‘Madrasas’.
i.
Age
of admission and ‘Bismillah’ Ceremony:
At the age of four years, four months
and four days, ‘Maktab’ ceremony or ‘Bismillah’ was performed to indicate the
beginning of the child. This was considered as an auspicious moment for
initiation or starting education. Good wishes were offered to the child.
‘Surah-i-Iqra’ a chapter from the holy Quran was recited on this occasion.
ii.
Maktabs:
Maktab
(Arabic):
(Other transliterations include Mekteb, Mektep, Meqteb, Maqtab), also called kuttab (Arabic: school), is an Arabic word meaning elementary schools. Primary education was imparted through the ‘Maktab’ which were attached with mosque or were independent of the mosque ‘Khanquahs’ of the saints also at some places served as centers of education. Several learned men also taught students at their residences. Most of the Maktabs were either patronized by rulers or had endowment. They were dependent on the charity of the philanthropists. The ‘Maktabs’ were run under the guidance of the learned ‘Maulavis’. They were supposed to be very pious.
‘Mkatabs’ children were made to remember the ‘Ayats’ of ‘Quran’. They also imparted the education of reading, writing and the primary arithmetic’s. when the children had learn the Arabic script, they were given the education in Persian language and script. The stories of Prophets and Muslim ‘Fakirs’ were also told to the children. Though it was primarily used for teaching children in reading, writing, grammar and Islamic subjects (such as Qur’an recitations), other practical and theoretical subjects were also often taught.
History
of Maktab:
In the medieval Islamic world, an
elementary school was known as a Maktab, which dates back to at least the 10th
century. Like Madrasa (which referred to higher education), a Maktab was often
attached to a Mosque. In the 10th century, the Sunni Islamic jurist
Ibn Hajar al-Haytami discussed Maktab schools. In response to a petition from a
retired Shia Islamic judge who ran a Madhab elementary school for orphans,
al-Haytami issues a fatwa outlining a structure of Maktab education that
prevented any physical or economic exploitation of enrolled orphans.
Building: In general, the
students sat on the ground in the rows under the shade of a tree and the
teacher used mat or dear-skin to sit at. He also attended to the students while
standing.
iii.
Madrasas:
Madrasah is the Arabic word literally means “a place where learning and studying are done. The Hebrew cognate Madrasah also connotes the meaning of a place of learning; the related term Midrasha literally refers to study or learning, but has acquired mystical and religious connotations. However, in English, the term Madrasah usually refers to the specifically Islamic institutions.
The children were sent to Madrasas after completing the primary education. There were separate teachers for different subjects. Special emphasis was given to the education of Islam. Religious and secular subjects also taught in Madrasas. The religious education included the study of Quran, Mohammed and his conventions, Islamic laws and Islamic history etc. the secular education included the study of Arabic literature, grammar, history, philosophy, mathematics, geography, politics, economics, Greek language and agriculture etc. the ‘Madrasahs’ imparted secondary and higher education. Often these Madrasahs were attached to mosques. The term ‘Madrasahs’ is derived from Arabic word ‘dars’ (a lecture) and means a place where lecture is given. There was difference in principles between the Madrasa and other mosques. When a particular room was called a Marasah. Sometimes it was quite close to a large mosque. It functioned as college of higher education where eminent scholars taught different subjects by using the lecture method supplemented by discussions. Management was usually private supported by state grants and endowments. There was provision for both secular and religious education in the Madrasah. The total duration of the course was ten to twelve years.
5)
Curriculum:
a. Curriculum and Mode of
Instruction in the Maktab:
i.
During those days there were no
printed books for the beginners. Wooden books (taktis) were used.
ii.
The Quran: After alphabets, words
were taught to students
iii.
Stress on Calligraphy: Beautiful and fine
handwriting was an important element of instruction.
iv.
Teaching of Grammar: Grammar was
taught as it was considered very valuable in teaching the languages.
v.
Religious Instruction: Instruction
imparted in the ‘Maktabs’ was religious through and through.
vi.
Books other than Quran: After the
Quran, the ‘Gulistan’ and the ‘Bostan’ poems of poet Firdausi were taken up.
vii.
‘Paharas’: Students also learned
‘Pahars’ (multiple of numbers). Students memorized these while uttering
collective in a loud voice.
b. Curriculum in the Madrasas:
The medium or instruction was
Persian, but the study of Arabic was made compulsory for the muslim students.
Religious education comprised deep study of the Quran, Mohammed and his
conventions, Islamic laws and Islamic history and Sufism etc. The secular
education included the subjects Arabic Grammar, Logic, Prose, Literature, Law,
Philosophy, Astrology, Arithmetic, History, Geography, Medicine, Agriculture
etc. The muslims generally followed in the field of handicrafts and
architecture the traditional Indian system.
6)
Methods
of Teaching:
There was
oral method followed during primary education. Children were made to remember
the ‘Ayats’ of ‘Quarn’. Recitation Quran Ayat was the method of teaching.
Lecture method and monitorial method used in the Madrasas to teach children.
7)
Norms
of Conduct:
Adequate stress was laid on
well-defined norms of behavior, pattern of thought, building up personality and
character of the pupils.
8)
Teacher-pupil
relationship:
In the Muslim period also the teacher was respected. There was intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupil. Teachers took to teaching for love of learning. They were held in high esteem. Prof. S.N. Mukherji has observed, “Learning was prized for its own sake and as a mark of the highest human development and teaching was never handicapped by examination requirements”. In the modern civilization nature of relaxation between the teacher and the taught does not count. But in Islamic scheme of education it holds a very crucial position. It considers the teacher as guide (Murshid), and the students as seeker (Taalib). Both are to be sincere in their attitude towards each other. The relationship between the two is to be governed by certain Qur’anic principles.
Since the Prophet is the role model for Muslims, he is to be followed by the teacher in his teaching profession. The teacher has to interact with his students in the way their biological fathers treat them. A father loves his children and is always concerned about their welfare; he wants to see them developing from all angles, physically, emotionally, morally and intellectually. The teacher has also to feel concerned about how to ensure his students growth, mentally as well as morally. It is clear that the secret of the Prophet’s success, among other things, was his gentle and kind approach to his disciples. A teacher who has the mission of imparting knowledge to his students has to act in the same manner so as to ensure success in his task.
The social status of teacher was
high and they are men of character, though their emoluments were small they
commanded universal respect and confidence. A teacher was never confronted with
any serious problem of discipline. Pupils were humble, submissive and obedient
owing to the high honour and prestige of teachers in society.
A Muslim teacher’s conducted, whether in public or in privacy, should correspond to his assertions. If the teacher’s person does not reflect Islamic character, students may not be expected to be sincere to him in learning from him. This disturbance of relationship between the teacher and the taught may disturb the whole process of education, causing students to feel confused. Learned teachers: Teachers took to teaching for love of learning. They were held in high esteem.
The number of students with the
teacher was limited, he paid individual attention to each students. Although a
teacher did not have many pupils to teach yet, still the teacher would take the
help of senior and advanced to teach the younger or the junior.
9)
Women
education in India during the medieval period
Education for girls was the
exception rather than the rule for Muslim girls of affluent families studied at
home Horanic exegesis, prophetic traditions, Islamic law (shari a) and related
subjects. Often attached to mosques, Islamic schools were open to the poor but
were gender segregated, often only for boys. Muslim girls of affluent families
studied at home, if they received any education beyond learning to recite the
Koran. Although there was Pardah system during the Muslim period yet Islam did
not oppose the education of women. These two contrary factors influence the
education of women. The girls were entitled to receive education equal to that
of the boys up to a definite age but thereafter their education was stopped.
However, the girl to higher classes used to continue their studies at home.
10)
Discipline
:
Punishments were quite severe.
Truants and delinquents were caned on their palms and slapped on their faces. A
strange mode of punishment was to make the children hold their ears by taking
their hands from under their thighs while sitting on their tiptoes.
11)
Individualized
instructions:
12)
Although a teacher did not have many
pupils to teach yet, still the teacher would take the help of senior and
advanced students to teach the younger or the junior.
12)
Vocational
education:
Provision was also made for
vocational, technical and professional education. Emperor Akbar took
considerable interest in education as is evident from the passage of from the
‘Ain-E-Akabri’. The passage makes interesting reading and provides valuable
information on the system of instruction, i.e., curriculum, methods of teaching
etc.
13)
Language:
Arabic and Persian language were
mostly compulsory. For getting high government posts, one had to learn these
languages.
14)
Fees:
There were several village schools
where the students were required to pay their instructions, not in cash but in
kind.
15)
Orphanages:
The state set up some Orphanages
where the children received education free of charge. Vast endowments were made
for these orphanages.
17)
Education
of sons of Nobles and Rulers:
The Muslims nobles as well as rulers
engaged tutors to teach their children at home.
Merits of Education during Islamic Period:
i.
Education was compulsory,
especially for boys.
ii.
There was proper co-ordination
between religious values and material values or to live well in the world.
iii.
Great stress was laid on character
building.
iv.
There was a personal touch between
the teacher and the taught.
v.
The education during the Muslim
rule was mostly free.
Demerits
of Education during Islamic Period:
i.
Unsuitability was characteristic of
the institution of education.
ii.
Education of the Hindus was
neglected.
iii.
There was no provision for universal
education.
iv.
There was too much emphasis on
teaching of Arabic and Persian. Given more emphasis on Islamic education.
v.
There was evil effect of corporal
punishment.
vi.
Curriculum was defective.
vii.
Oral and verbal method of teaching
did not help the consolidation of knowledge.
viii.
Indifference towards women
education.
ix.
The teacher and taught relationship
was not ideal.
x.
No place for all-round development
of the personality.
xi.
It was considered as dark period
for development of education.
INDIAN PATHSALAS DURING THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
Chief features of Hindu
system of Education in India during the medieval period.
i.
Lack
of state support:
With
the advent of the Muslim rule, the state support for the Hindu system of
education almost ended. Now it depended upon the rich people, scholars and
village communities. Of course where there were no Muslim rulers, it received
state support. Gradually there remained a few such areas.
ii.
Religion
Oriented Education:
The system of education, by and
large was dominated by religion. Elementary education was imparted in
‘Pathshalas’ which existed both in villages and towns.
iii.
Pathshalas:
Usually
pathshalas were held in the verandah of some house or under trees. There were
also separate houses for pathshalas. Specific type of buildings for them did
not exist. Premeises of the temples were also used. The ‘Pathshalas’:
Elementary education was imparted in ‘Pathshalas’ which existed both in
villages and towns.
iv.
Fees:
No regular fees were charges
from the students. The parents gave presents to the teachers. Students were
required to render personal service to the teachers. Sometimes teacher also
engaged themselves in part time work to supplement their income.
v.
Instructional
Methods at the Elementary Stage:
There were four stages of
Instruction at the elementary stage. In the first stage writing letters of the
alphabet on sand was taught to students. In the second stage, the teacher wrote
on palm leaves and the students traced over them with red pen and charcoal ink.
These could be rubbed very easily.
In the third stage, the student
wrote and pronounced compound components. Excessive practice was given to the
students in this regard. Common names of persons were used for this purpose. At
this stage also, the student was taught to use the words in the formation of
sentences. He was also taught to make a distinction between written and
colloquial languages. The students were taught to rules of arithmetic and multiplication
tables repeated by the entire class. In the fourth stage, students were taught
to use paper for writing.
vi.
Curriculum
at the elementary stage:
Knowledge of weights and
measures was considered essential therefore; arithmetic was a compulsory
subject at the elementary stage. Literature was included in the curriculum;
real literature taste was not cultivated. Moral and religious instruction also
had a secondary place in these schools. In some schools, salutation to Goddess
Saraswati (the Goddess of learning) was learnt by heart by the students.
Instruction in mythology and sacred love of the Hindus was also given in some
schools.
