Education during Modern Period B.Ed Sem1 Notes

MODERN PERIOD- BRITISH PERIOD

                

The introduction of modern education was an event of great historical significance for India. It was definitely a progressive act of the British rule. Three main agencies were responsible for the spread of modern education in India: the foreign Christian missionaries, the British government and progressive Indians. Christian missionaries, who did extensive work in the sphere of spread of modern education in India, were inspired mainly by a proselytizing spirit to spread Christianity among the people. These missionaries started educational institutions which along with imparting modern secular education also gave religious instructions in Christianity. The British Government was, however, the principal agent in disseminating modern education in India. It established a network of schools and colleges in India which turned out educated Indians well-versed in modern knowledge.

               

The introduction of modern education in India was primarily motivated by political and public-administrative and economic needs of Britain culture would bring about a social and political unification of the world. Modern education is beneficial in India, specifically if obtaining a Master of Public Administration, which offers essential and advanced knowledge for forthcoming elected and appointed officials at all levels of government. Persons like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Keshab Chandra Sen, Rabindra Nath Tagore, Ishwar Chander Vidyasagar, Ranade, Dayanand Saraswati, Ramakrishna, Vivekanand etc. worked towards the establishment of modern education. Modern education had fundamentally different orientation and organization as compared to traditional education. Thus, with the introduction of the Western system of education both the meaning and content of education underwent significant changes.

                

British Empire and its-history in India are considered one of the most remembering and remarkable historical periods in Indian history. With the advent of British ships on Indian coasts in early 16^th century, things did not remain the same anymore. District features of each age and century underline British rule in India, starting with the British East India Company and ending with Lord Mountbatten and transfer of power in 1947.

                

Though the years within the late 17^th and early 18^th centuries were not the serious education years, development of education under British regime was first witnessed in late 18^th and early 19^th centuries. According to S.S. MUkherji, “the Portuguese people who first started modern education  system in India by establishing the missionary schools”.

 EDUCATION UNDER EAST INDIA COMPANY

                The East India Company was a private company which, after a long series of wars and diplomatic efforts, came to rule India in the 19^th century. The British East India Company arrived in India in the early 1600s, struggling and nearly begging for the right to trade and does business and spread the Christianity in India. Chartered by Queen Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600, the original company consisted of a group of London merchants who hoped to trade for spices at islands in present day Indonesia. Ships of the company’s first voyage sailed from England in February 1601. After a series of conflicts with Dutch and Portuguese traders active in the Spice Islands, the East India Company concentrated its efforts on trading on the Indian subcontinent. By the late 1700s the thriving firm of British merchants, backed by its own army, was essentially ruling India. In the 1800s English power expanded in India, as it would until the mutinies of 1857-58. East India Company works can see at Madras, Bombay and Bengal.

 CHARLES GRANT

                Charles Grant was born at Aldourie, Inverness-shire, Scotland and went to India in 1767 in a military role. Later through a variety of friends and acquaintances, he rose to the eminent position of superintendent over all of the East India Company’s trade in Bengal. Returning to Britain in 1790, Grant became a leading British statesman prior to his death in Russell Square, London, October 31, 1823. One of Grant’s accomplishments included acquiring large fortune through silk manufacture in Malda, India, which resulted in Governor-General Cornwallis appointing Grant as a member of the East India Company’s board of trade in 1787. Later in 1805, Grant became the chairman, Court of Directors, East India Company. In Grant’s politics Elected to Parliament in 1802 from Inverse-shire, Grant served as an MP until failing health forced him to retire in 1818. While in India and later in the British Parliament, Grant exerted much influence in the areas of education, social and public policy and Christian missions. Politically, Grant opposed Governor-General Wellesley’s war policies against native Indians and Grant supported the Parliamentary move to impeach Wellesley.

                Grant in his “Observations” sided with Wilberforce in 1813 as the two successfully sought to increase education and Christianity’s presence in India alongside the East India Company’s commercial interests. In 1792, Grant wrote “Observation on the State of Society among the Asiatic Subjects of Great Britain”. Although this was a “drainpipe” study of Hindu India this work acquired the status of a toleration of educational and missionary activities in India. Being presented to the Company’s directors in 1797 and to the House of Commons in 1813, the Commons ordered its printing in 1813 within the context of the Charter Renewal. Grant argued that the method for civilizing India in regard to society, morality and religion would be for the Company to allow Christian missionaries into India along with Christianity’s legal establishment. Ironically, Grant’s thesis was at odds with the long-held position of the East India Company, which had attempted to prevent Christian missionary work in India. Key figures in the opposition to missionaries in India were Major Scott Waring and the Rev. Sydney Smith. The essay provides a Christian rationale of Empire.

                Grant saw Indian society as not only heathen, but also as corrupt and uncivilized. He was appalled by such native customs as exposing the sick, burning lepers and sati. He believed that Britain’s duty was not simply to expand its rule in India and exploit the continent for its commercial interests, but to civilize and Christianize. In effect, this also meant to “Westernize”, though this was not a prime motivation.

                The essay urged that education and Christian mission be tolerated in India alongside the East India Company’s traditional commercial activity. It argued that India could only be advanced socially and morally by compelling the Company to permit Christian missionaries into India. This view was diametrically opposed to the long-held position of the East India Company that Christian missionary work in India conflicted with its commercial interests and should be prohibited. In 1791, Grant presented his essay to the Company’s directors and then later in 1813, along with the reformer William Wilberforce, successfully to the British parliament.

 CHARTER ACT 1833

                The territorial boundary of East India Company was gradually expanding so it became essential for her to issue another notification. In 1833 was issued the notification concerning education in India which was known as Charter Act 1833.

Following facts were notable in the Charter Act 1833:

                     1.         The Missionaries of all the countries were given the facility of preaching their religion India.

                     2.         The Governor of Bengal was made superior to the Governors of other Provinces and his policies were to be followed by others.

                     3.         Any Indian or natural citizen of the emperor territory was not to be appointed to any service or post on the basis of caste, creed or some other consideration.

                     4.         Education Grant was raised to Rs. 1, 00,000/- from 10,000.

                     5.         In the Council of the Governor-General a fourth member i.e., Law members was added.

                     6.         In due course of time, the provision of this Charter influenced the education in India to a very great extent. This Charter of 1833 occupies a very important place in the History of Indian Education.

               In 1813, the East India Company was compelled to accept responsibility for the education of Indians. Charter Act of 1813 made a provision for an annual grant of a sum of not less than one lakh of rupee for the promotion of learning in India.

ORIENTALISTS AND ANGLICISTS CONTROVERSY

                      The charter Act of 1813 did not specify the methods to secure the objects of ‘revival and improvement of literature’, ‘the encouragement of learned natives of India’and ‘the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories in India. There were two groups emerged with different views among the officials of the East India Company regarding how to spend the One lakh rupees provision for promotion of education in India.

Orientalists Argument:

                     Orientalists such as Warren Hastings, H.T. Princes, Lord Minto and H.H. Wilson etc. who wanted to promote traditional Indian Education. H.T. Princes was the president for the committee on how to spend the provision of one lack rupee for promotion of education in India. According to them Indian languages and Indian culture is greater than with westerner languages and western culture. And Indians are unable to understand the English language hence it is very important to continue the education in Indian languages only. Orientalists who wanted to spend one lakh rupees fro promote Indian education through the medium of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian.

                      East India Company was given importance for views of Orientalist\ till 1813. They established Madrasa at Culcutta and Banaras Sanskrit Colleges at Varanasi. Western literature were translated in Indian languages i.e. Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian. They have given scholarships for Indian students. They introduced English language as a medium of instruction for them who are showing interest in learning English.

Anglicists Argument:

                     This view was strongly argued by Lord Macaulay and some of English favor Indians such as Raja Ram Mohan Ray. During this violent controversy Lord T.B. Macaulay Council. Lord Macaulay was appointed President of the General Committee on Public Instruction by Lord William Bentinck, the Governor General of India. He was a learned scholar of English literature and very fluent orator. The government wanted the advice of Macaulay on the implications of the clause 43 of the Charter Act of 1813. Lord Macaulay was argued that British culture and English language is only the greatest culture and language and Indians are uncivilized. Hence it is very important that the provision of one lakh rupees should spend for developing the English language and western culture in India. Macaulay presented his lengthy minute to Lord Bentinck in 1835. In the minutes he advocated education of the upper classes in India and made a vigorous plea for spreading western through the medium of English.

                      Macaulay thought that it was possible only through English in education to bring about a class of persons, Indian in blood and color but English tastes, in opinions, in morals and intellect. This minute was accepted by Bentinck and it opened a new chapter in the educational story of India.

                     Lord Macaulay’s Address to the British Pariliament on 2^nd February 1835, “I have travelled across the length and breadth of India and I have not seen one person who is a beggar, who is thief. Such wealth I have seen in this country, such high moral values, people of such caliber, that I do not think we would ever conquer this country, unless we break the very backbone of this nation, which is her spiritual and cultural heritage and therefore, I propose that we replace her old and ancient education system, her culture, for if the Indians think that all that is foreign and English is good and greater than their own, they will lose their self esteem, their native culture and they will become what we want them, a truly dominated nation”.

 LORD MACAULAY’S MINUTE ON INDIAN EDUCATION

                      Lord Macaulay was appointed Law member of the Governor General’s Council. And he was appointed the Chairman of Society of Public Instructions of Bengal by Lord William Bentinck. The Government demanded his advise on the following two issues as a Law Member:

1.      Could the granted money of Rs. One lack be spent in any other way also besides the oriental education?

2.      What was the actual meaning of articles of the order of 1813?

                     Macaulay did not take part in any of the policy laying of the Government of India. Nor did he ever participate in the meeting of the society. He presented the recommendations on 8^th February 1835. And Macaulay in this minutes supported western education through English medium in India. He said, “A single shelf of good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia”. He maintained that current Indian languages are mostly incomplete, inefficient and lacking in scientific vocabulary hence, important books not translated in those languages. In this way Macaulay was discarded the local languages and degrade these literatures, through English education Macaulay wanted to create, “At present we should create such group of people who may work as a mediator between us and the common people, a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in the intellect”. He wants to create a group of ‘WOGS’ (Western Oriented Gentlemen) who would always co-operate with British rulers in exploitation of Indians.

Changes Enforced in Indian Education:

           1.      Europian literature and science will be propagated among the Indians.

           2.      Funds will be employed only for encouraging English education.

           3.      Future allocation of funds to oriental students and teachers will be stopped.

           4.      No funds will be available for printing of oriental works.

           5.      The medium of education will be English.

                     Of course, Macaulay policy was succeeded to a great extent. Lord William Bentinck was accepted the Macaulay policy. In a letter to his father in 1836, Macaulay wrote, “Our English Schools are increasing with leaps and bounds and how the condition has reached to a position that it has become difficult to accommodate the students…… Hindus are much influenced with education. There is no Hindu, who may keep real faith in his religion after studying English. I have full confidence that if our education policy succeeds then no Idolater will be left in Bengal. All this will be done naturally without any religious preaching and interference”.

Down Ward Filtration Theory:

                      In India Christian Missionaries calculated that lower classes of the people generally follow the ideas of higher classes. Hence, if some people of higher classes could be converted to Christianity, the people of lower classes will follow them. Therefore, efforts were made for spreading English education through Mission schools.

Meaning of Filtration Theory:

                     Filtration theory means “Education is to be filtered to the common people. Drop by drop, the education should go to the common public so that at due time it may take the form of a vast stream which remained watering desert of the society for long times and high class of people should be educated and common people gain influence from them”. The policy evolved between 1780 and 1833. According to this policy, “an attempt was made to educate only the higher classes, so that education filters down from the classes to the masses”.

Causes of Filtration Theory:

1.             Need of Government Services:  The company government needed various types of workers to run the business of government. They wanted to have cheep servants who work in different capacities. This aim could be fulfilled only by an educated higher class of people of India. So, the government started the policy of education of higher class.

2.             No enough money to take the responsibility of educating the masses.

 WOOD’S DESPATCH (1854)

                     In 1853, the directors of the East India Company decided to lay down a definite policy in regard to educational matters of India. Charles Wood was the chairman of the Board of Control. A parliamentary committee was appointed to survey the educational progress in India. The committee studied the issue thoroughly. It heard the ideas of the persons like Traivelion Pairy, Marshman, Wilson, Halide, Cameron and Duff, etc., the committee members who had thorough knowledge of Indian education. The committee reported that the question of Indian education would not be ignored any longer and its development will not be in only case harmful to british Empire. The committee suggestions were accepted by the Board of Control under the chairmanship of Charles Wood and the declaration was known as “Wood’s Educational Despatch” though it was written by John Stuart.

The main recommendations of the Wood’s Despatch:

              1.                  The Dispatch clearly accepted the responsibility of British Government for education in India.

              2.                  To raise intellectual fitness and moral character of the students was laid down as aim of education.

              3.                  Mr. Wood recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian and recommended them as subjects of study in regular institutions. He also recognized the usefulness of western knowledge for Indians.

             4.                  Due to dearth of books in Indian languages, the medium of education should be English. But this should be used by those people who have proper knowledge of English. Those who are not able to understand the English language for them sake Indian language only as the medium of education.

              5.                  Department of public Instruction should be setup in all the provinces. Its highest official should be designated as the Director of Public Instrcution. He should be assited by Deputy Education Educator, Inspector and Deputy Inspector of Schools.

             6.                  The universities should setup at Calcutta, Bomabay and Madras and if necessary at other places too.

             7.                  The Dispatch emphasized establishment of the graded schools as follows.

                          i.      Universities

                        ii.      Colleges

                      iii.      High Schools

                       iv.      Middle Schools

                         v.      Primary Schools

             8.                  The Dispatch said, ‘the filtration theory’ was failed and suggested to increase in the primary, middle and high schools. Suggested to implement scholarships and other schemes.

             9.                  Dispatch suggested Grant-in-aid system for the institutions which fulfilled certain qualifications. He also suggested that the rules and regulations for Grant-in-aid. It should be framed on the lines practiced in England.

              10.              Dispatch expressed the desires of opening training schools in every province of India.

               11.              Dispatch threw light on women education and praised the persons engaged in this pious work.

              12.              Mr. Wood said that Muslims are too backward in education. They should be encouraged to gain education.

              13.              Schools and colleges should be setup at suitable places for vocational education.

Merits:

                     British Parliamentary for the first time made an attempt to decide the educational policy of India and gave it in legal form. According to H.R. James, “The Despatch 1854climax in the History of Indian education”.

 HUNTER COMMISSION-1882

                     ON February 3, 1882, Lord Rippon came to India. He was the Governor General of India. He appointed the first Indian Education Commission, with Mr. William Hunter as the chairman. He was a member of the Viceroys Executive Council. Therefore, it came to be popularly known as “Hunter Commission”. Woods dispatch in 1854 had recommended that greater attention should be paid to the education of the people at large, but the Government had failed to do so. Therefore, ‘Hunter commission was appointed mainly to look into the condition of primary or elementary education in India. The commission was to make the following enquiries:

1.            To know the condition of primary education.

2.            To find out the methods of expansion of primary education.

3.            To know the position of State institutions and its importance.

4.            To know the position of missionary institutions in general.

5.            To decide the attitude of government towards private enterprises.

Recommendations of Hunter Commission:

                                        I.            Primary Education:

1.      Primary education should aim at spreading public education and also the preparing the students to enter into higher education.

2.      Primary education should be helpful to students to stand on his legs and helpful for practical life.

3.      The medium of primary education should be Indian languages or vernaculars.

4.      Government should make a constant effort for progress, expansion and development of primary education.

5.      The commission suggested, the provincial government shall give grant for primary education to the extent of ½ of the local fund for education or one-third of the entire expenditure on this item.

6.      Commission also suggested, establishment of the training institutions. The teachers should be properly trained.

                                               II.            Indigenous Education:

                The institutions or ‘Pathshalas’ that are run by Indian according to Indian tradition of education called as indigenous institution. The following suggestions were given by Hunter commission.

1.      No restrictions should be imposed for admission to such institutions.

2.      Government should encourage indigenous institutions which management is under Indians.

3.      Government should not interfere in their curriculum in any way.

4.      Government should grant the aid.

5.      Proper arrangement should also be made for the training of the teachers of these institutions.

6.      Poor students in these institutions should be given stipends and scholarships.

                                            III.            Secondary Education:

1.      The government through the system of grant-in-aid should give the administration and organization of secondary education into the hands of efficient and able Indians.

2.      The government may open secondary schools at such places where it is not possible for the public to run.

3.      The curriculum of secondary education should be split up into two parts. There should be ‘A’ curriculum and ‘B’ curriculum. ‘A’ curriculum was to have subjects that were to be useful for higher study. Curriculum ‘B’ was to have vocational, occupational and practical subjects.

4.      Medium of instruction in this secondary school stage should continue the English as medium of instruction.

                                          IV.            Higher Education:

1.      Meritorious and promising students may send to foreign countries for higher education on government scholarships.

2.      While appointing teachers such Indians should b given prefer who have received education in European Universities.

3.      Provide the human religion related books for moral development of the students.

4.      Local needs number of the teachers and expenditure of college should kept in mind while giving grant-in-aid to the colleges.

5.      Varied and vast curricula should be arranges to colleges and must have the subjects where the students can select based on the choice.

                                      V.            Education Department:

1.      The number of inspectors in every province should be raised and as possible as should appoint Indians as inspectors in every provinces.

  VI.            System of Grant-in-aid:

1.      Changes and reforms should be made in the role of grant-in-aid system, keeping in view the conditions and requirements of all the institutions of State.

VII.            Education of Women:

               Pointed the commission about pitiable condition of the women. They recommended:

1.      Arrangement for Public Funds.

2.      Liberal grant-in-aid.

3.      Public co-operation.

4.      Free education.

5.      Lady Inspectresses.

6.      Special arrangement for education of ‘parda’ observing ladies.

7.      Transfer of the girls institutions from local bodies.

8.      Decent arrangement of the hostels.

9.      Different curriculum for girls.

VIII.            Muslim Education:

                The commission felt that the education of the Muslims was not getting sufficient and proper attention. They recommended.

1.      Every effort should make popularize the Muslim education.

2.      Special funds should allocate for it.

3.      The teaching of Hindustani (Urdu) and Persian should be given for majority locates Muslims.

4.      Scholarship also given them.

 IX.            Education of Harijans and Back ward classes and Tribes:

1.      All the schools should be directed to admit children of Harijans and Back ward students.

2.      Special schools should be open wherever objects them to admit in the school.

3.      It was mandatory on the part of schools teachers and inspectors to make judicious efforts to remove caste prejudices.

4.      For tribe students no charge will be taken. Free education is given to tribe students.

    X.            Religious Education:

1.      Religious education of any sort should not be given in the public schools.

2.      Religious education may be imparted in the private institutions.

               The Hunter commission was appointed mainly to study the problems and development of primary education. But this Commission also made its suggestions in regard to the secondary, higher, women and modern education. The commission made important suggestions regarding the expansion of education at different stages. It was on the basis of suggestions of the Commission that the network of the primary schools was spread throughout the country and the secondary and higher education received a great impetus.

 HARTOG COMMITTEE-1929

                      The British Government was promised that after world was to give freedom to the nation. But when the war came to an end the British Government did not keep their promise. This made Indian people restless. In order to meet this situation the government passed ‘Government of Indic act 1919’. With this act central government take administration with their hands. This is created s different situation for the progress of education. Seeing this dissatisfaction of the Indian people about the ‘Government of India Act 1929’, Simon Commission appointed on November 8^th 1927. In order to satisfy the Indian people Simon Commission was felt that it is necessary to give due importance to education. With this aim in view, Simon Commission appointed an Auxiliary Committee under the Chairmanship of one of its members, named Sir Phillip Hartog to inquire into the conditions of education in India. Sir Phillip Hartog to inquire into the conditions of education in India. Sir Phillip Hartog had served as a member of the Sadler Commission. He had also been a Vice-Chancellor of the Dacca University in 1921. Since he was the chairman of the committee, the Committee was known as Hartog Committee.

Main objectives of the Hartog Committee:

1.            To inquire into the condition of education in India.

2.            To solve the unrest among the people of India during the time of after world war.

3.            To survey the growth of education in British India.

4.            To devote for more attention to mass education than secondary and University education.

Views on Primary education:

Defects or difficulties in the path of progress of Primary Education in Indian Society.

Hartog committee realized that the progress of primary education has not been satisfactory. Difficulties in the path of progress under followed:

1.        Rural Background: Real India is we can see in rural villages. Hence, primary education is more a rural problem than an urban one.

2.        Poverty and Illiteracy: Due to poverty and illiteracy of parents it is clear that unable to provide the favourable and suitable environment.

3.        Unfavourable circumstances: No transportation for rural villages and due to poverty the parents were not willing to send their children to schools.

4.        Ill-Health: As villages did not have hygienic conditions, epidemic diseases often spreading.

5.        Caste, religion and communal feeling were serious barriers in the path of spread education.

6.        Wastages and Stagnation: Wastage meant the premature withdrawal of children from schools at any stage before the completion of primary course. Stagnation meant retention in lower class of a child for a period more than what was needed for that class. Due to illiteracy, poverty, lack of trained teachers, defects of education act and unsatisfactory distribution of schools can see the wastages and stagnation in rural India.

Recommendation:

1.            Planning to make primary education compulsory.

2.            Government should themselves undertake the responsibility of inspection and control of the primary schools.

3.            Concentrate on qualitative development.

4.            Four years should be devoted to primary education.

5.            The time-table should.

Views on Secondary Education:

Defects or difficulties in the path of progress of Secondary Education in Indian Society:

1.            It was found that secondary education was so examination oriented. Secondary education was very much dominated by matriculation examination.

2.            There were a lot of failures at the matriculation examination. This indicated the huge waste of human talents, time and resources.

Recommendations:

1.            Remodeling of middle examinations.

2.            Committee suggested that industrial and commercial courses should be introduced in high schools.

3.            Examination should be held at the complete of the middle stage.

4.            Improvements in the quality of training colleges. Modern methods should adopted in training college and refresher course organized.

5.            Better working conditions for teachers: The salaries and service conditions of the teachers should be improved.

Views on Higher Education:

Defects or difficulties in the path of progress of Higher Education in Indian Society.

1.            Low standards.

2.            The purpose of higher education just earning. But purpose should be inculcating the taste for learning in the students and to prepare healthy individuals in the society.

3.            Unhealthy competitions between Universities and (No standards) Low standard of English.

4.            Inadequate libraries.

Recommendations:

1.            Establishment of affiliated Universities along with unitary, residential and teaching universities. The appointment of teachers in affiliated colleges should be by the universities only.

2.            Each University should provide and maintain libraries.

3.            Rise in the standard of secondary exam.

4.            Education of Harijans, women and minorities also given importance.

Merits of Hartog committee:

1.            In 1921, Established CABE (Central Advisory Board of Education )

2.            In 1937 Gandhiji was discussed Basic education

Demerits of Hartog committee: Recommendations were not successfully implemented due to economic crisis.

SARGEANT REPORT-1994

                      After the Second World War the attention of the government of India was drawn towards the plan for development of the Indian life in its various phases. To meet these requirements, The CABE officers of the executive council deputed John Sargeant, the education advisor to the government of India to draw up a memorandum for the development of Indian education. In the Post War Reconstruction period.

                      The John Sergeant submitted his memorandum before the ‘Central Advisory Board of Education in 1944. And the board accepted it in ‘toto’ and recommended its enforcement. The scheme was known as ‘Sergeant Scheme of Education’, ‘Report by the Central Advisory Board of Education 1944’ and also known as ‘Post-war Educational Development in India’.

Suggestions:

1.        Pre-Primary Education: Nursery schools should be started for the success of National Scheme of Education. Children from 3-6 years of age should be admitted in these schools. Pre-Primary education should be free.

2.        Primary Education or Basic Education: The committee recommended, Free and compulsory primary or basic education should be provided to children of the age group 6-14. This education should be based on some foundational craft. In this regard committee agreed with scheme of basic education. But it did not agree with the idea that things manufactured by the students should meet the expenses of the education. Basic Schools were divided into two categories:

             i.        Junior Basic Schools: In these shall study the children from 6-11 years of age. Education in these schools shall be compulsory for all.

           ii.        Senior Basic Schools: Shall study children of 11-14 years of age. Only such students should be sent to Senior Basic Schools who cannot continue their studies for High Schools.

3.        Secondary education should be the following division:

                    i.            Academic

                  ii.            Technical

Academic: Classical languages and civics shall also be taught along with other subjects. For the girls there should be provision for Home Science.

Technical:

                                           i.                  Wood Craft

                ii.                  Metal Craft

                iii.                  Elementary Engineering

                iv.                  Drawing

                                         v.                  Commerce

               vi.                  Shorthand

               vii.                  Type-Writing.

               viii.                  Accounting

                ix.                  Book-Keeping

                                         x.                  Business Method Etc.

      Both the primary and secondary education hall have certain subjects in common. Such as:

                                          i.                  Mother Tongue.

                ii.                  English

               iii.                  Modern Language

                iv.                  History

                                         v.                  Geography

               vi.                  Mathematics

               vii.                  Science

               viii.                  Economics

                ix.                  Agriculture

                                          x.                  Art

                xi.                  Music

               xii.                  Physical Education

4.            University Education: Sergeant report has suggested that a three years degree course. It was suggested that the Intermediate classes should be done away with 11^th class should be added to the High School and while the 12^th class should be added to Three Year Degree Course.

5.            UGC and Other Schemes: The Sergeant report has suggested for the appointment of University Grants Commission for improvement of University Education.

6.            Sergeant report made recommendations in regard to the education of uneducated adults from 10-40 years.

7.            The report also suggested that there should be an army trained teachers for the rapid progress of education and the successful execution and the successful execution of the plans of education.

8.            Under the control of education department a number of employment bureaus should be established.

9.            Universities should have their own employment bureaus.

10.        All the educational activities and administration should be run under the guidance of Provincial Government. But the activities of the University and higher, technical educational bodies should be co-ordinate on All-India basis.

11.        In every province there should be Education Advisory Board.

Merits of Sergeant Scheme of Education:

1.               First Comprehensive Scheme: This scheme of education presented a comprehensive picture of the problems and requirements of Indian Education. This scheme was discussed from primary education onwards till university education. Prof. K.G. Saiyadain said “It is first comprehensive scheme of national education”.

2.               The report said 40 years of time require for implementation of this scheme of education.

Criticism:

1.               This scheme was severely criticized. It was not an original report. It was only a patch-work of the recommendations of different committees and commissions on education.

2.               The recommendations of primary education contained only gist of Wardha Scheme of Basic Education.

3.               It shall be wrong to call it a National Scheme of Education. It was only a copy of the pattern practiced in England which cannot serve as a model of India. Because the social, political and economic conditions in the two countries are so vastly different.

CONTEMPORARY PERIOD-POST INDEPENDENT INDIAN EDUCATION

                      On the Fifteenth of August, 1947 India got her Independence. India was a poor nation at that time. Majority of population was illiterate. English education system was in vogue. Very few rural boys receive this education. When we become an independent nation we had some pathshalas and maktabs but they were in a very bad condition. The only system of education prevalent during those days was English education system. The policy of education was clear that which should produce clerks to run the government machinery. There was no relevance of education with life. There was big task in front of our national leaders and educationist when we got independence. There was a need of right policy to remove illiteracy and achieve education for all. After independence India entered a new phase of national life. The central and state governments are fully conscious of their educational responsibilities and numerous commissions and committees have been set up for suggesting suitable schemes for reforming the entire educational system. After independence there were mainly three commissions were setup and after their studies given recommendations.

 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION (OR) INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION (OR) RADHAKRISHNAN COMMISSION

                       

After independence, the first significant step taken by the Government of India in the field of education was the appointment of the University Education Commission in 1948 under the Chairmanship of Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, a distinguished scholar and former vice-chancellor of Bnanras Hindu University and who became the second President of India. The Commission was appointed by the Governement of India to go into the problems and prospects of Indian University Education and to suggest improvements and extensions that might be considered desirable to suit the present and future requirements of the country. The Commission was appointed in November 4^th, 1948 and it submitted its report in August, 1949.

                     

The Report of the Commission is a document of great importance as it has guided the development of university education in India since independence. The Inter-University Board of Education and Central Advisory Board of Education recommended to the Government of India that  an All India Commission on Education should be appointed to inquire into the requirements of the higher education in India and to put forward the recommendations for the re-organization of the University Education system in the light of the requirements of the country and its traditions. Because of the fact that Dr. Radhakrishnan was the Chairman of the Commission it is known as ‘Radhakrishanan Commission’. There were 10 members in the commission.

Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, was:-

                v    A distinguished scholar.

                v    Former Vice-Chancellor of Banaras Hindu University.

                v    Second President of India.

                v    Spalding Professor of Eastern Religious and Ethics at the University of Oxford.

                v    Chairman, University Education Commission (1948-49)

                      The main objective of commission was, “To report on Indian University Education and suggest improvements and extensions that may be desirable to suit present and future requirements of the country”. The commission toured the country extensively. It prepared a questionable which was sent over to about 600 persons who mattered in the field of education. It interviewed administrators, organizations of students and educationist. It tried to gather information in regard to almost all the aspects of University education. The commission was given report in a two volumes. The first part contains 18 chapters and about 747 pages and the second volume contains the statistics in regard to institutions and other educational problems and the evidence tendered by the witness examined by the commission. The decision was due to the realization that a reconstruction of university education was essential for a national-cultural resurgence as well as for meeting the requirements of scientific, technical and other man- power which India needed for its socio-economic development in the wake of the independence in 1947.

Recommendations of the Radhakrishnan commission:

                       Universities are the seats of higher learning from where the society gets its leaders in Scienc, Arts and various other fields of national life. University education in India aims at providing knowledge and wisdom which are necessary attributes of a well developed personality.

1.              

                Aims of University Education:

      1.       Aims of university education as laid down by the commission:

                      To produce able citizens who can take up national responsibilities successfully in various fields. Produce able administrators and suitable workers in various occupations and industries. Provide leadership in the various walks of life in the best interest of the nation. The aim of a university should be to maintain a high standard in general, professional and vocational education by inspiring the students to search for a new knowledge and good effort that must be authentic in nature. The university has to help the students to imbibe the good aspects of their culture and to accept new values for an all-round development. The university has to develop the spirit of universal brotherhood and internationalism in the students. One of the main functions of universities is to bring about the spiritual development of students. Education should discover the innate qualities of a person and develop them through training.

                2.              Faculty in Universities:

                     The University Education Commission has emphasized that the teacher plays a vital role in the education system; therefore, an adequate faculty with required qualification are necessary to discharge many types of duties in a university or in a college. The University Education Commission recommended that proper care should be taken in the selection procedure of a teacher for the appointment as a professor, reader, lecturer and an instructor as well as for his or her salaries. Each university should have some research fellows. Besides these, definite rules regarding the Provident Fund, leave and hours of work should be followed by a university.

                3.              Teaching Standards:

                      The most important duty of a university is to maintain the highest standard of its teaching and examinations. The standard of admission to the university courses should correspond to that of the present intermediate examination, i.e. after the completion of 12 years of study at a school and an intermediate college. That in each province a large number of well-equipped and well staffed intermediate colleges (class IX to XII or XI or XII) be established. That in order to divert students to different vocations after 10 to 12 years of schooling a large number of occupational institutes be opened. Refresher courses are organized by the universities for high school and intermediate college teachers. The university libraries should be greatly improved. That the laboratories be improved in building, fittings, equipment, workshops and technicians.

                  4.              Course of Study:

                      According to the recommendation of Radhakrishnan Commission, the general as well as specific interest of the students should be taken care of when the courses will be designed for the courses of the university level. Master Degree should be given to honour students after one year’s study beyond the bachelor’s degree. Literature for general education courses should be developed which will give the students an acquaintance with the mastery of the contents and methods of thinking and working in each field.

                  5.              Research and Training:

                      The regulations for master of Arts and Master of Science should be uniform in all universities of India. The admission procedure as well as the process for enrolling in Ph. D. degree should be arranged on all India basis. D. Litt. And D. Sc. Degrees should be awarded on published work of outstanding quality. A large number of Scholarship should be provided for the research work to the university by the Ministry of Education. Fundamental research should be the primary step for a University.

                  6.              Professional Education:

                      The University Education Commission has made some recommendation regarding professional education and has divided it into the five aspects of education as Agriculture education, Commercial Education, Engineering and Technology, Legal Education and Medical Education.

                      Regarding Agriculture education, the Commission emphasized that agriculture education should be recognized as an important national issue and the study of the subject of agriculture should be introduced in all stages of education i.e. primary, secondary and higher level. The existing agriculture colleges and institutions should be improved and research centers should be established.

                      On the aspect of the Commercial Education, the Commission recommended that commercial education should be made more practical and the graduates should be encouraged to specialize in a particular branch. On the subject of Education, the faculty of training colleges should be recruited for giving training to the people who have first hand experiences of school teaching. In assessing students performance, more stress should be given to practice only.

                      Regarding Engineering and Technology, the Radhakrishnan Commission recommended the inclusion of the general education and basic physical engineering science in the engineering courses. Besides these, the Commission also suggested that the number of engineering schools and college should be increased, the existing engineering colleges’ should be upgraded for post training research in selected subjects an they should be closely associated with the universities.

                       In the context of Legal Education, the Commission suggested that the law colleges should be thoroughly re-organized. Students pursuing degree courses in law should not be permitted to carry on other degree courses simultaneously.

                     Regarding Medical Education, the commission recommended that the maximum number of admission should be 100 and that all the departments of the study which require hospital facilities should be located in a single campus. There should be 10 beds for each students. Post-graduate training should be offered in certain well staffed colleges.

                     7.              Religious Education:

                     The University Education Commission 1948 who recommended religious education in the colleges that-

          v    “All educational institution start work with a few minutes for silent meditation”.

           v    That in the first year of the degree course the lives of great religious leaders like Goutama the Buddha, Confusius Zoroaster, Socrates, Jesus, Sankara, Ramanuja, Madhava, Mohammad, Kabir, Nanak, Gandhi be taught.

           v    That in the second year some selections of a universalistic character from the scriptures of the world be studied. That in the third year, the central problems of the philosophy of religion be considered.

                     8.              Medium of Instruction:

                      According to the recommendation of the University Education Commission, higher education should be imparted through the regional languages with the option to use the federal languages as the medium of instruction either for some subjects or for all subjects. All provincial governments should take step to introduce the teaching of the federal language in all classes of Higher Secondary Schools, in degree colleges and in the universities. English should be studied in the Higher Schools and in the Universities for keeping the students in touch with the living stream of ever-growing knowledge.

                      9.              Examination or Evaluation System:

                      The University Education Commission criticized the present system of examination and stress was given to introducing the objective type questions in the examination. Following are the basic ideas and suggestions of the University Education Commission in 1948-49 in this regard.

         v    The commission suggested the techniques in devising and constructing objective test for the class examination in colleges and universities.

         v    The Government should not insist on university degrees for the administrative services.

         v    According to the University Education Commission, Credit should be given for the class work and one third of the mark allotted to each subject should be reserved for work done during the course of instruction.

         v    The standard of success at the various examinations should be uniform in all universities.

         v    The Commission divided the rank after passing the examination as getting 70% or more marks should be given the rank of first class, 55% to 69% for the rank of second class and at least 40% for a the rank of third class.

         v    The system of grace marks should be abolished.

         v    Viva-voce examination should be employed only for professional and post graduate degrees.

         v    The essay type of questions should continue with the objective type questions but the type of question, method of examination should be thoroughly changed with a view to making it more valid and reliable.

                10.            Students Activities and Welfare: Regarding the students activities and their part in the well being of the nation, the Commission suggested the following recommendations:

           v    The students should undergo through physical examination at the time of admission and at least once a year thereafter.

           v    All universities must have hospital and health service.

           v    Sanitary inspection of the campus building, hostels, dining rooms, kitchens and off-campus residences must be undertaken in a university.

           v    Competent staff should be provided for compulsory physical training and a regular time should be assigned for the purpose.

           v    Social service should be encouraged and it should remain on a completely voluntary basis.

           v    All students should receive N.C.C. training.

           v    Students union should be free-form he political motives and activities.

           v    An offices of the Dean of Students should be set up in colleges and universities.

                 11.            Women Education:

                      Regarding the women education, the Commission suggested for providing the same facilities to the women colleges and universities as providing the same facilities to the women colleges and universities as provided to men’s colleges and universities. The curriculum should also be prepared for them, considering them as both women and citizens.

                12.            Administration and Finance of a University:

                     The university Education Commission considered the regulations and control capacity of a university in the followings ways:

             v    The university education should be placed on the concurrent list.

             v    Regarding the finance, co-ordination of facilities in special standards, adoption of national policies, ensuring minimum standards of efficient administration and providing liaison between universities and national research laboratories and scientific surveys etc., the Central Government must have the responsibility towards the universities.

             v    For the allocation of grants to the universities a central Grants Commission should be established.

             v    There should be no university of the purely affiliating type.

             v    The governing bodies of the colleges should property constituted.

             v    The aim of an affiliated college should be to develop into a unitary university and later into a federative one.

                       Regarding finance, a University Grant Commission should be set up for allocating grants to the universities. The State should also take the responsibility for the financing of higher education.

SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION 1952-53

                    After achieving the independence in 1947, both the public and the Government began to take keen interest in the development of secondary education. Although the number of secondary schools and its enrolment began to significantly increase even before India’s attaining independence, the quality of education imparted was unable to meet the changing socio-economic needs of the country. As such, the need for reform was strongly felt. The university Education Commission also remarked that our secondary education remained the weakest link in our educational machinery and it needed urgent reforms. Meanwhile with the attainment of independence, the political situation of the country also underwent a complete transformation. Education also needed a fresh look, calling for a new outlook which was appropriately voiced by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the then Education Minister in his presidential address to the Central Advisory Board of Education in 1948. The Central Advisory Board of Education at its 14^th meeting held in January 1948 recommended the appointment of a commission to examine the prevailing system of Secondary Education in the country and to suggest measure for its reorganization and improvement. There were other consideration also before the Government of India for setting up a commission for Secondary Education.

                      In view of these considerations, the Government of India set up the Secondary Education Commission by Resolution dated 23^rd September, 1952, under the Chairmanship of Dr. A. Lakshmana Swami Mudaliar, the Vice-Chancellor of the Madras University. Therefore this commission is also known as Mudaliar Commission. The Commission was inaugurated on 6^th October, 1952. It submitted its report on June 1953.

1.          Terms of Reference:

                       The terms of reference of this Commission are as follows. To enquire into and report on the present position of Secondary Education in India in all its aspects to suggest measures for its re-organization and improvement in Secondary Education in India.

        2.              Method of Enquiry:

                      The Commission prepared a questionnaire dealing with the various aspects of secondary education. This was sent out to various educational experts, teachers and educational institutions of India. On the basis of the replies received a good deal of information was collected. The members of the Commission took an extensive tour of the various parts of India and acquired first-hand knowledge of the various educational problems and presented its report running on August 29, 1953.

        3.              Defects of the Existing System:

                     The Commission pointed out the following defects of the existing system-

             v    First, the education given in our schools is isolated from life. The curriculum as formulated and as presented through the traditional methods of teaching does not give the students insight into the everyday world in which they are living.

             v    Secondly, it is narrow and one sided and it fails to train the whole personality of the student.

             v    Thirdly, too much importance has been given to English. Students who did not posses special linguistic ability were, therefore, greatly handicapped in their studies.

             v    Fourthly, the method of teaching generally practiced failed to develop in the students their independence of thought and initiative in action.

             v    Fifthly the increase in size of the classes has considerably reduced personal contact between the teachers and the pupils. Thus the training of character and inculcation of proper discipline has been seriously undermined.

                      Finally, the dead weight of the examination has tended to curb the teachers initiative, to stereotype the curriculum, to promote mechanical and lifeless methods of teachingto discourage all spirit of experimentation and to place the stress on the wrong or unimportant things on education.

          4.              Recommendations of Secondary Education Commission:

 i.             Aims of Secondary Education:

                   The Commission has made the following recommendations in regard to its aims of Secondary Education.

          v    Development of democratic citizenship

                     Since India has decided to make itself a democratic republic, the citizen have to be trained to upload and practice the values of the democratic social order. This can be possible only when the qualities of discipline, tolerance, patriotism, co-operation, equal opportunities for thought, speech and writing, the essence of the world citizenship are inculcated and developed in the students. Secondary education, according to the Mudaliar Commission, should develop all these qualities in the students. Citizens with these qualities can grow into ideal- citizens capable of making Indian democracy a success. In short, the aim of Secondary education should be develop ideal democratic citizens in the country.

          v    Improvement of Vocational Efficiency:

                      One of the urgent needs of the country is to increase the productive efficiency of its people and to increase the national income. For this, education must aim at increasing the productivity or vocational efficiency of the young students. To achieve this goal, the Secondary Education Commission recommended for fostering the dignity of manual labor and for the promotion of technical skills for the advancement of industry and technology through secondary education. Therefore =, secondary education is to be freed from purely theoretical education system and emphasis is to be placed on agricultural, technical, commercial and other practical courses.

          v    Education for leadership:

                       Secondary education is a terminal point for majority of the students. Therefore, at the end of the school education, each pupil must be able to enter into various professions independently. “A special function of the secondary school, in the context, is to train persons who will be able to assume the responsibility of leadership-in social, political, industrial or cultural fields – in their own small groups of community or locality”.

          v    Development of personality:

                      The secondary education must aim at the development of the personality of the students. It should be so organized that the creative energy in the students should find proper expression. They should also trained to appreciate their cultural heritage and acquire constructive and valuable interest. They should also be development of the personality of the student is an essential aim of secondary education.

i              i.            Re-organization of Secondary Education:

                   Regarding the organizational pattern of secondary education, the Secondary Education Commission recommended that secondary education should be a complete stage by itself. This stage of education is most important for the students in their preparation for life. To raise the standard of school education the Commission proposed the following organizational pattern.

v   The duration of secondary education should be 7 years. It should cover the age of group of 11-17.

v   Under the new organizational structure secondary education should commence after 4 or 5 years of primary or junior basic education.

v   The middle or senior basic or lower secondary stage should cover a period of 3 years.

v   The higher secondary stage should cover 3 years.

v   The commission also suggested abolition of the present intermediate classes. The 12^th class should be attached to the university and the one year pre-university and 3 year degree courses.

v   The commission recommended that technical schools should be started in large number and central technical institutes should be established in large cities.

v   Multi-purpose schools should be established, which would provide terminal courses in technology, commerce, agriculture, fine arts and home sciences. The object of these institutions was to direct students into different walks of life at the end of the secondary course and this will reduce the pressure upon university entrance.

             ii.                Curriculum in Secondary Schools:

                     The Secondary Education Commission has discussed at length the Secondary Education curriculum. First it pointed out the defects of the existing curriculum, discussed in detail the principle of curriculum construction and finally the curriculum of different stages of secondary schools.

Defects of the Existing Curriculum:

The Commission has pointed out the following defects in the existing curriculum:

            v    The present curriculum is narrow.

            v    It is bookish and theoretical.

            v    It is overcrowded and does not provide rich and significant contents.

            v    There is no adequate provision for practical and other kinds of activities that should find place in any curriculum at this stage of education. Hence, the curriculum is not able to bring about the education of the whole personality of the child.

            v    It does not cater to the various needs and capacities of the adolescents.

            v    Technical and vocational subjects are very much needed for India today, but the curriculum does not find room for these subjects.

            v    Curriculum is too much dominated by the examination.

The Basic Principles of Curriculum Construction:

                      The Secondary Education Commission has recommended some principles to be followed in the construction of curriculum.

            v    Principles of totally of experience:

                     According to the Secondary Education Commission, “The curriculum does not include only the academic subjects traditionally taught in the school but it includes the totality of experiences that a pupil receives through manifold activities that go in the school, in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop, playground and in numerous informal contacts between teacher and pupils”. All type of experiences in the school or planned by the school should be included in the curriculum.

            v    Principles of variety and elasticity:

                      The Curriculum should be elastic and include varieties of subjects and activities to meet the needs of the various types of pupils. The curriculum should be adaptable to meet the needs and interests of the students.

            v    Principles relating to community:

                       The curriculum should be related to the community. There should be community-oriented programmes in the curriculum so that a child can feel that he is an integral part of the local community. The curriculum should bring the child and the community closer.

            v    Principle of training for leisure:

                      The Curriculum should be designed to train the students not only for work but also for leisure. For this purpose there should be a number of activities-social, aesthetic, sporting etc. which should be included in the curriculum. These activities will train the students to use their leisure time properly.

            v    Principle of integration and correlation:

                       The curriculum should not be merely a bundle of subjects and activities. The activities and subjects should be integrated and well correlated. The curriculum should provide a ‘broad field’ units having direct bearing on life. The Commission has laid down the following different curriculum for these two stages in the secondary education.

1.          Curriculum for the Middle Schools:

The Commission has recommended the inclusion of the following subjects.

            a.       English

            b.      Social Studies

           c.       General Science

           d.      Mathematics

           e.       Art and Music

           f.        Craft

           g.       Physical Education

2.          The Curriculum for High and Higher Secondary Schools:

For this stage of education, the commission has suggested that there should be a diversified course.

           a.       Compulsory subjects or main subjects and

            b.      Optical subjects.

A        Compulsory Subjects:

The Compulsory Subjects shall include the following:

                               1.               Mother tongue or regional language or composite course of the mother tongue and a classical language.

                              2.               One other language to be chosen from among the following.

                                      i.            Hindi for those whose mother tongue is not Hindi.

                                     ii.            Elementary English (for those who have studied English at the middle stage).

                                   iii.            Advanced English (for those who have studied English at the earlier stage).

                                    iv.            A Modern Indian Language (other than Hindi).

                                   v.            A modern foreign language (other than English).

                                  vi.            A classical language.

                            3.               Social studies- General course (for the first two years only).

                            4.               General Science including mathematics- General course (for the first two years only).

                           5.               One Craft to be chosen out of the list given below.

                                          i.            Spinning and Weaving

                                           ii.            Wood Work

                                         iii.            Metal Work

                                          iv.            Gardening

                                           v.            Tailoring

                                          vi.            Typography

                                        vii.            Workshop Practice

                                      viii.            Sewing, Needle Work and Embroidery

                                          ix.            Modeling

B        Optional Subjects: Three subjects from one of the following groups:

Group -1 (Humanities):

                                         i.            History

                                         ii.            Geography

                                         iii.            Elements of Economics and Civics

                                        iv.            Elements of Psychology and Logic

                                         v.            Mathematics

                                       vi.            Music

                                      vii.            Domestic Science

Group – 2 (Science):

                                       i.            Physics

                                     ii.            Chemistry

                                    iii.            Biology

                                    iv.            Geography

                                    v.            Mathematics

                                    vi.            Elements of Physiology and Hygiene (Not to be taken with Biology)

Group – 3 (Technical):

                                         i.            Applied Mathematics and Geometrical Engineering

                                       ii.            Applied Science

                                       iii.            Elements of Mechanical Engineering

                                         iv.            Elements of Electrical Engineering

Group – 4 (Commercial):

                                         i.            Commercial Practice

                                         ii.            Book-Keeping

                                         iii.            Commercial Geography or Elements of Economics and Civics

                                         iv.            Shorthand and Typewriting

Group – 5 (Agriculture):

                                         i.            General Agriculture

                                        ii.            Animal Husbandry

                                         iii.            Horticulture and Gardening

                                          iv.            Agricultural Chemistry and Botany

Group – 6 (Fine Arts):

                                         i.            History of Art

                                          ii.            Drawing and Designing

                                        iii.            Painting

                                         iv.            Modeling

                                          v.            Music

                                          vi.            Dancing

Group – 7 (Home Science):

                                           i.            Home Economics

                                           ii.            Nutrition and Cookery

                                           iii.            Mother Craft and Child Care

                                            iv.            Household Management and Home Nursing

INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION OR KOTHARI COMMISSION 1964-66

                     Kothari Education Commission, 1964-66, which was the sixth commission in the history of commission in India. The Five Years Plan, started after independence helped the growth of the country in many areas. However, the execution of these plans expresses the inherent weakness due to which the expected success was not being achieved. Education appeared to be one of areas which indicated many problems that needed our efforts for immediate solutions. The recommendations of first two commissions could not be succeeded in its full implementations. Consequently, the defects, the government had to appoint a new education commission to advise the government on national pattern of education along with general principles and policies for the development of education at all stages.

                      The Commission was appointed under provision of a resolution of the Government of India, dated 14^th July, 1964. Prof D.S. Kothari, Chairman, University Grants Commission , New Delhi was appointed as the Chairman of the Commission. The Commission included eminent educationists in diverse fields from India and abroad. It consisted of total 17 members, where 14 members, 1 member – secretary. 1 Associate –Secretary and Dr. D.S. Kothari, chairman of the U.G.C. was appointed as the chairman of the commission. Therefore, it is also known as the Kothari, Commission. Among the members of the commission 5 educationists were from England, America, Franc, Japan and Russia. J.P. Naik was appointed as number secretary of the commission and J.F. McDougal as associated secretary.

The unique features of the Education Commission (1964-66) were:

  i.                  All the earlier commissions did not deal with education as a whole but focused attention on different levels of education. But this commission was not to limit its enquiry to specific sectors or aspects of education, but to have a comprehensive review of the Entire Educational System.

ii.                  Another unique feature of the Commission was its conviction that education is the most powerful instrument of the national development. The crucial role of education in national development appears in all its vividness on every page of the report.

iii.                  The international composition of the commission is also significant. Education in India must necessarily emerge from Indian experience, through, culture and local conditions. But as education remains the common quest of mankind., it was found profitable to draw upon the experience and thinking of educationists and scientists from other countries and to take advantage of the latest developments in the educationally advanced countries. As such the commission included 7 Indian members and 5 others; 1 each from Japan, France, U.K., U.S.A. and USSR. Besides, 20 consultants from different countries of the world were available.

                                         1.          Terms of Reference:

                   The Commission will advice the Govt. on national pattern of education and on the general principles and policies for the development of education at all stages and in all its aspects. It need not, however, examine the problems of medical or legal education, but such aspects of these problems as are necessary for its comprehensive enquiry may be looked into.

                                      2.          Recommendations of Kothari Commission:

     i.            Aims of Education: Education has a very extensive role to play in changing the men and society. It has to be entirely reformed and related to the life, needs and aspirations of the people so that it may serve as a powerful tool of social, economic and cultural transformation.

In order to relate education, the commission recommended the following objectives-

                                         1.         Increase in Productivity.

                                        2.         Promoting social and National Integration.

                                         3.         Education and Modernization

                                        4.         Developing social, moral and spiritual values.

1.          Increase in Productivity:

                      The Commission suggested that education must be related to productivity to increase national income. In order to link education and productivity the Indian Education Commission made the following recommendations.

                                               i.                  Science is the basic component of education and culture; so it should be made an integral part of school education.

                 ii.                  To inculcate the value of manual work the commission recommended the introduction of work experience in school education.

                 iii.                  To meet the increasing needs of technical personnel in Industry, agriculture and trade the IEC recommended to introduce vocational subjects in school curriculum.

                       It also opined that the vocationalisation will bring education into closer relationship with productivity.

2.          Promoting social and National Integration:

                    National and social integration is the precondition for the progress and development of a country. According to the commission, Social and National Integration is an important objective of a national system of education. The commission made the following recommendations for strengthening social and national integration through education.

                                                        i.                  To make education a powerful instrument of national development, common school system of public education should be adopted.

                     ii.                  Bridge the gulf between the educated and the uneducated intellectuals and masses, social and national services should be made an integral part of school education.

                     iii.                  A language is a firm adhesive or social and national integration, suitable provisions should be made for teaching mother tongue, Hindi and other Modern Indian languages in schools.

               3.              Education and Modernisation:

                     The present society is the science- based society. The present century has made tremendous advancement in scientific and technical knowledge as a result of explosion of knowledge. In such a situation one of the main functions of education is to keep pace with this advancement of knowledge. Another feature of modern society is the rapid social change. In the situation of change, the school must always be alert if it is to keep abreast of significant changes. An education system which does not renovate itself continuously, becomes out-dated and puts hindrance to progress. To keep pace with modernization the IEC is of the opinion that “Great emphasis must be placed on vocational subjects, science education and research”.

             4.              Social, moral and spiritual values:

                      The national system of education should emphasis on the cultivation of social, moral and spiritual values among students. For this purpose the commission made the following recommendations:

                                               i.                  In order to develop social, moral and religious values, some periods should be provided in the time table. Instruction of this type should be given by general teachers.

                  ii.                  The Central and State governments should adopt measures to introduce education in moral, social and spiritual values in all institutions under their direct control on the lines recommended by the University Education Commission on religious and moral instruction.

                 iii.                  The University departments should be especially concerned with the ways in which these values can be taught wisely and effectively and should undertake preparation of the special literature for use by students and teacher.

                 iv.                  Commission recommended a new structural pattern of education. The new educational structure should be as follows:

            v    One to three years of pre-school education.

            v    A primary stage of 7 to 8 years divided into a lower primary stage of 4 or 5 years and a higher primary stage of 3 or 2 years.

            v    A lower secondary stage of 3 or 2 years of general education or 1 to 3 years of vocational education.

            v    A higher secondary stages of 2 years of general education or 1 to 3 years of vocational education, 50% of the total would be under vocational education.

            v    A higher education stage of 3 years or more for the first degree research degrees. The structural pattern thus recommended by the commission is commonly known as 10+2+3. Pre-school education from 1 to 3 years should also be given.

        

General education should last for a period of 10 years –

4 years of lower primary

3 years of higher primary

3 years of lower secondary education.

          v    Higher secondary education should be fixed for 2 years.

          v    Degree course should be of 3 years.

                      The age of admission to class I should not be less than 6+. The first public external examination should come at the end of the first 10 years of schooling. Secondary schools should be of two types: higher schools providing a 10 years’ course and higher secondary schools providing a course of 11 or 12 years. A new higher secondary course consisting of class XI and XII should be introduced. The pre-university course should be transferred from Universities and added to the secondary schools. The Commission has been suggested the reorganization of the university stage. At this stage, the three year degree has been favored by the commission.

NATIONAL POLICY OF EDUCATION 1968

                      The National Policy of Education 1968 is based on the recommendations of the Commission of 1964-66. The commission recommended that the Government of India should issue a statement on the National Policy on Education which should provide guidance to the stat Governments and the local authorities in preparing and implementing educational plans. In 1967 the Govt. of India constituted a committee of Members of parliament on Education to prepare the draft of a statement on the National Policy of Education. The Committee brought together the leading members of almost all the political parties in the country and prepared a draft which was considered by the Central Advisory Board of Education. A general consensus on the National Policy on Education emerged in the course of the Board’s deliberations.

                      In its policy declaration the Government of India stated that the Government is convinced that a radical reconstruction of education on the broad line recommended by the education commission is essential for economic and cultural development of the country for national integration and cultural and for realizing the ideal of a socialistic pattern of society. This will involve a transformation of the system to relate it more closely to the life of the people, effort to raise the quality of education at all stages, of moral and social values. The educational system must produce young man and women of character and ability committed to national service and development. Only then education will be able to play it vital role in promoting national progress, creating a sense of common citizenship and culture and strengthening national integration. Only then education will be able to play its vital role in promoting national progress.

Resolution Adopted on National Policy on Education:

                       Let us discuss the resolutions that have been included in the National Policy of Education, 1968. These resolution can be considered as the follow up programme of the recommendations of the Kothari Education Commission.

                                    1.          Free and Compulsory Education:

v    Strenuous efforts should be made for the early fulfillment of the Directive Principle under Article 45 of the constitution seeking to provide free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14.

v    Suitable programmes should be developed to reduce the prevailing wastage and stagnation in schools and to ensure that every child who is enrolled in school successfully completes the prescribed course.

                                     2.          Status, Emoluments and Education of Teachers:

                   Of all the factors which determine the quality of education and its contribution to national development, the teacher is undoubtedly the most important.

 Teachers are accorded an honored place in the society.

              v   Their emoluments and other service conditions should be adequate and satisfactory having regard to their qualification and responsibilities.

              v   The academic freedom of teachers to pursue and publish independent studies and researches and to speak and write about significant national and international issues should be protected.

              v   Teacher education, particularly in-service education, should receive due emphasis.

                                 3.          Development of languages:

              v   Regional Languages: The energetic development of Indian languages and literature is a sine qua non for educational and cultural development. Unless this is done, the creative energies of the people will not be released, standards of education will not improve, knowledge will not spread to the people, and the gulf between the intelligentsia and the masses will remain static if not widen further. The use of regional languages should not be only at the primary and secondary stages, but urgent steps should be taken to adopt them as media of education at the university stage.

              v   Three-Language Formula: At the secondary stage, the state Governments should adopt and vigorously implement the three language formula which includes the study of a modern Indian language, preferably one of the southern languages, along with regional languages, Hindi and English.

              v   Hindi: Every effort should be made to promote the development of Hindi as the link language. Due care should be taken to ensure that it will serve as provided for in the Article 351 of the constitution, as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India.

              v   Sanskrit: Considering the special importance of Sanskrit to the growth and development of the Indian languages and its unique contribution to the cultural unity of the country, facilities for its teaching at the school and university stages should be offered on a more liberal scale.

              v   International Languages: Special emphasis needs to be laid on the study of English and other international languages.

                                            4.          Equalization of Educational Opportunities:

              v   Strenuous efforts should be made to equalize educational opportunity.

              v   Regional imbalances in the provision of educational facilities should be concerned and good educational facilities should be provided in rural and other backward areas.

              v   To promote social cohesion and national integration in the common school system as recommended by the Education Commission should be adopted.

              v   Effort should be made to improve the standard of education in general schools.

              v   All special schools like Public schools should be required to admit students on the basis of merit and also to provide free studentships to prevent segregation of social classes.

              v   The education of girls should receive emphasis, not only on ground of social justice but also because it accelerates social transformation.

              v   More intensive efforts are needed to develop education among the backward classes and especially among the tribal people.

                      Educational facilities for the physically and mentally handicapped children should be expanded and attempts should be made to develop integrated programmes enabling the handicapped children to study in regular schools.

                                  5.          Identification of Talent:

                   For the cultivation of excellence, it is necessary that talent in diverse fields should be identified at as early and is as possible and every stimulus and opportunity given for its full development.

                                6.          Work-experience and national Service:

                   The school and the community should be brought closer through suitable programmes of mutual service and support. Work experience and national service including participation in meaningful and challenging programmes of community service and national reconstruction should accordingly become an integral part of education. Emphasis in these programmes should be on self-help, character formation and on developing a sense of social commitment.

                                 7.          Science Education and Research:

                    With a view to accelerating growth of the national economy, science education and research should receive high priority. Science and mathematics should be an integral part of general education till the end of the school stage.

                                   8.          Education for Agriculture and Industry:

            v   Special emphasis should be placed on the development of education for agriculture and industry.

            v   There should be at least one agricultural university in every state. These should be single campus Universities and they may have constituent college of different campuses. Other Universities may also be assisted to develop strong departments for the study of one more aspects of agriculture. In technical education, practical training in industry should form an integral part of such education. Technical education and research should be related closely to  industry. There should be provision or continuous cooperation between the two.

                             9.          Production of Books:

            v   The quality of books should be improved by attracting the best writing talent. Immediate steps should be taken for the production of high quality text books for schools and universities.

            v   Frequent changes of textbooks should be avoided and their prices should be low enough for all to buy them.

            v   The possibility of establishing autonomous books corporation on commercial lines should be examined and efforts should be made to have a few basic text books common throughout the country.

                   Special attention should be given to books for children and to university level books in regional languages.

                                     10.        Examinations:

                   A major goal of examination reforms should be to improve the reliability and validity of examinations and to make evaluation a continuous process, it should aim at helping the student to improve his level of achievement rather than at ‘certifying’ the quality of his performance at a given moment of time.

                                   11.        Secondary Education:

                 Educational opportunity at the secondary (and higher) level is a major instrument of social change and transformation. Facilities for secondary education should accordingly be extended to areas and classes which have been denied these in the past.

                There is need to increase facilities for technical and vocational education at this stage. Provision of facilities for secondary and vocational education should confirm broadly to requirements of the developing economy and real employment opportunities. Facilities for technical and vocational education should be suitably diversified to cover a large number of fields, such as agriculture, industry, trade and commerce, medicine and public health, home management, arts and crafts, secretarial training etc.

                                         12.        University Education:

              v   The number of whole-time students to be admitted to a college or university department should be determined with reference to the laboratory, library and other facilities and the strength of the staff.

              v   Considerable care is needed in establishing new universities. They should be started only after an adequate provision of funds and due care should be taken to ensure proper standards.

              v   Special attention should be given to the organization of post-graduate courses and to the improvement of standards of training and research at this level.

              v   Centers of advanced study should be strengthened and a small number of ‘Clusters of centers’ aiming at the highest possible standard in research and training should be established. There is need to give increased support to research in the Universities. The institutions for research should as far as possible, function within the fold of universities or in intimate association with them.

                                       13.        Part – time Education and Correspondence Courses:

                    Part – time education and correspondence courses should be developed on a large scale at the university stage. Such facilities should also be developed or secondary school students, for teaching and for agricultural, industrial and other workers. Education through pat- time and correspondence courses should be given the same status as full – time education. Such facilities will provide opportunities to the large number of people who have the desire to educate themselves.

                                     14.        Spread of Literacy and Adult Education:

                   The liquidation of mass illiteracy is necessary not only for promoting participation in the working of democratic institutions and for accelerating programmes of production, especially in agriculture, but for quickening the tempo of national development in general. Employees in large commercial, industrial and other concerns should be made functionally literate as early as possible. A lead in this direction should come from the industrial undertakings in the public sector. Teachers and students should be actively involved in orgaising literacy campaigns.

                                  15.        Games and Sports:

                   Games and sports should be developed on a large scale with the objective of improving the physical fitness and sportsmanship of the average student as well as of those who excel in this department.

                                16.        Education of Minorities:

                    Every effort should be made not only to protect the rights of minorities but to promote their educational interests as suggested in the statement issued by the Conference of the Chief Ministers of states and Central Ministers held in August 1961.

                                 17.        The Educational structure:

                   It will be advantageous to have a broadly uniform educational structure in all parts of the country. The ultimate objective should be adopt the 10+2+3 pattern, the higher secondary stage of two years being located in schools, colleges or both according to local conditions. The National Policy on Education was welcomed in every part of the country.

                   The policy passes some special features as well as a few drawbacks. We are giving here an evaluation of the policy as whole.

              v   It was an important historical event for education in Independent India because this was the first, when an attempt was made to give some sense of direction to the country’s educational system.

              v   The three language formula proposed in this policy was very important from the point of view national integration.

              v   Ensuring equality of educational opportunity was praiseworthy.

              v   Through the policy since 1968 accountability of the Central Government with regard to education has been fully recognized.

              v   Raising the standard of education at all stages has been fully recognized.

              v   The policy is criticized on the ground that it is very vague, giving important on too many things at a time.

              v   Policy has given important on creating educational facilities for minorities. But as long as the word ‘minority’ is applied, it will continue to hamper their progress and they should be regarded as ordinary citizens.

              v   The three language formula is criticized as ‘political compromise’. It is said that no one has accepted it in his heart and the students, will accept the third language merely as a burden thrust upon them.