Eastern Systems of Philosophy B.Ed 1st Sem Notes

EASTERN SYSTEMS OF PHILOSOPHY

I. Sankhya Philosophy and Education

                     Sankhya has been propounded by the great seer Kapil. Perhaps this happens to be the oldest of the major systems of Indian philosophy as its references are found in Shute, Skirt, Ramayana, Mahabharata and other ancient literatures. These references are eloquent testimonies of its oldness as well as its propagation and expansion. In our ancient literature Kapil has been referred to in various ways an incarnation of Lord Vishnu, son of Kardam and Devaluate, spiritual son of Brahma and an incarnation of Agni (Fire). At some places he has been referred to as a descendant of the seer Gautam. It has also said that it is after his name that Kapilavastu town has been established. It is difficult to say if there has been only one Kapil or many. However, at least this much is certain that Kapil, the great seer amongst all seers, has been the first propounder of Sankhya philosophy.

The Meaning of Sankhya Philosophy:

                     Scholars have interpreted the word Sankhya in two ways number i.e. Sankhya and Gyan or knowledge. Some scholars are of the view that Sankhya is related with the number of elements (Tatva), because this philosophy has enumerated 25 elements. The second meaning of Sankhya is the knowledge of the divine. This divine knowledge pertains to the knowledge about the body and soul and matter and spirit. Originally, Sankhya philosophy is not theistic. It is realistic in epistemology but dualistic in metaphysics.  It assumes two moving ultimate the spirit (Purush) and matter (Prakriti). According to Sankhya Philosophy both ‘Spirit’ and ‘Matter’ are eternal and uncaused. Prakriti has three attributes of Satva, Rajas and Tamas (the three Gunas). This philosophy believes that the union of spirit and matter is necessary for the evolution of the world. In due course, the term ‘Sankhya’ was accepted as an equivalent of knowledge. Hence, Sankhya became popular as Gyan Marg i.e. path of knowledge.

                     According to Sankhya, there are three basic elements (Tatva) -  Vyakta, Avyakta and Gya.  Gya is Chetan or Purush or spirit. The Avyakta is matter or Prakriti. Vyakta is the consequence of the KaryaKaran ‘Parampara’ (Tradition) or the consequence of the activity (Karya) and cause (Karam). Vyakta is of 23 types. Thus there are 25 elements according to Sankhya which may be mentioned as belows:

             i.            Prakriti (Matter) or Avyakta.                                                            

           ii.            Vikriti: Hand, leg, speech (Vani), anus and genital, eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin, mind (Man) and earth (Prithvi), water energy, air and sky or atmosphere or space.                                                                   

        iii.            Prakriti – Vikriti: Ego (Ahamkar), intellect (Buddhi or Mahat), sound (Shabda), touch (Sparsha), form (Rup), taste (Taste) and smell (Gandha).                                                                                                    

        iv.            Neither Prakriti nor Vikriti: Purushi Soul                                   

Basic Postulates:

                      According to the Sankhya philosophy deliverance (Nivritti) from the miseries of this world is possible only after a true knowledge of the secrets of these 25 elements. In fact aknowledge of these secrets is salvation (Moksha), Sankhya does not accept the necessity of God in the existence of the process of creation (Sristhi-Prakriya). Sankhya asserts that the existence of God cannot be proved. Hence Sanikhya is regarded as atheistic (Nirishwaravadi).

                    The Purush (spirit) is inactive (Nishkriya) without attributes i.e. absolute and detached (Nirlipta). But the other two elements – Vyakta, Prakriti or matter and Avyakta are associated with attributes. In order to understand the interrelationship between these elements, it is necessary to understand the consequence (Pariram) and the relationship between action or activity (Karya) and cause (Karan). Each matter has some attributes (Dharma). The attribute of each matter is changeable. This change ability is known as Pariram or the consequence or result. This Pariram or changeability is a continual process both in the Vyakta and Avyakta elements (Tatva). Each matter in the world is made of Satva, Raj and Tam attributes. Attribute means factor (Ghatak) or rope (Rassi), Just as three pieces of thread are entwined to make a piece of rope; similarly, the intermingling of these attributes (Satva, Raj and Tam) in various proportions produces various things (Padarth). Satva stands for light (Praksh) or knowledge (Gyan). Raj stands for action or activity (Kriyashilata). Tam refers to inhibition (Avarodha), heaviness (Bharipan) and covering etc. The position (Sthiti) of these attributes results into some activity or consequence (Pariram). The activity or consequences (Pariram) may be of three types: 1. Change in the attribute (Dharma-Pariram), change in the form (Lakshan-Pariram) and change in the position (Awastha-Pariram).

                     When the Prakriti (Avyakta) is in balanced position, then there is no change (Pariram or consequence) in the Prakriti. When its balance is disturbed some activity springs forward. There is a Karan-Karya (cause and action or activity) relationship between the Vyakta Prakriti and Avyakta Prakriti. But what is the meaning of Karya Karan relationship (Sambandh)? According to Nyaya Philosophy Karya (action) is different from Karan (cause) and there is absence of Karya (activity) in Karn cause. Nyaya Philosophy believes that Karan (cause) is dependent on the will of God (Ishwareksha). But Sakhya does not agree with this view point. According to it (Sankhya) Karya (action) is not different from Karan (cause). In fact, it (Karya) is inherent in Karan (cause). The origin of Karya from Karn means coming out of the hidden or latent Karan (cause). This principle is known as Satkaryavad.

                     The Sankhya Philosophy makes a subtle analysis of matter and spirit, i.e. Prakriti and Purush. The basic or fundamental matter or (Prakriti) is unperceivable (Apratyaksha). But its existence may be proved.

                      The Purush (the spirit) is unperceivable. It cannot be perceivable even through intellect. It is beyond the three attributes and it is detached. It cannot be proved even through inference. The only proof of its existence is Vedas. The Spirit is inactive (Nishkriya) and all-pervading (Sarvavyapak). Purush or spirit is one, but according to many commentators the Sankhya Philosophy believes in the plurality of spirit. According to Sankhya there are three positions of Purush: the bound (Baddha), the free (Mukta) and the known (Chetan). It is the Baddha (the bound) Purush which tries to be free.

                     The Sankhya Philosophy discusses about the relationship between the Prakriti and Purush (matter and spirit) and between bondage (Bandhan) and salvation (Kaivalya). The Prakriti or the matter is eternal (Nitya). When the reflection of the Purush (spirit) falls on Prakriti (matter), the intellect (Buddhi) is generated. As a result, the Prakriti begins to regard itself as attached. This supposed and projected relationship between Purush and Prakriti (spirit and matter) is regarded as Bandhan (Bondage). In order to remove this bondage and to recognize its separate existence from the Prakriti is Kaivialya or Mukti or salvation of the Purush. It is after procuring this position that the Purush begins to regard himself as Nirlipta or detached. Even after obtaining Kaivalya (Salvation), due to Samskars (impressions) of the previous births the body is not destroyed immediately. Then the Sadhak (devotee) is in the position of Jeevan-Mukta (free from the present life). When the Bhoga (cherished things or sufferings pertaining to the previous births) is fulfilled the physical body declines and the devotee obtains the accomplishment of video Kaivalya (perfect salvation).

                      According to Sankhya philosophy the ultimate valor (Param Purusartha) of one’s life is to obtain deliverance from the Dukhatrayathree fold miseries, that is Adhibhautik (Physical) or material, Davik (miseries brought out through the influence of evil spirits) and Adhyatmik (spiritual). The realization of the ultimate truth is the only means for achieving this position.

Educational Implications of Sankhya Philosophy:

The Meaning of True Education: According to the principles of Sankhya philosophy an action (Karya) is already inherent in a cause, so it is a truism to remark that the development of man is already inherent in him (man). Hence, the work of education is to bring out the development of man to the fullest extent Sankhya accepts the Prakriti (the matter) and Purush (the spirit) as the fundamental elements, but it has very clearly pointed out the basic differences between the two. According to Sankhya philosophy true education is that which acquaints one with the differences between Prakriti and Purush (matter and spirit).

The Fundamental Purpose of Education:

                     The Sankhya philosophy man’s body is made of senses (Gyanendriya) and organs of action (Karmendriya). The inner self (Antahkaran) of man is a harmonious assemblage of man. Ahankar(ego or the self-consciousness) and Buddhi (intellect). The Purush (the soul) is the enlightener of these three elements. Sankhya wants that education should develop all these three basic elements. According to Sankhya ‘Mukti’ (deliverance or liberation of the soul) is the ultimate purpose of one’s life. This Mukti may be obtained through releasing the difference between the Prakriti and Purush (Matter and Spirit). Therefore the development of man should be so guided that he may distinguish between matter and spirit and may obtain freedom from the miseries of life. According to Sankhya philosophy this end the practice of yoga is necessary. For the practice of Yoga (Yoga-Sadhana) moral conduct is the first requisite. In the modern language the above purpose of education may be further analysed in the following manner.

To get freedom from the three-fold miseries (Dukhatraya)

                          1.        The miseries pertaining to soul, mind and body in other words, the miseries pertaining to the spiritual realm (Adhyatmik)

                         2.        The miseries relating to external world, i.e. Adhyatmik and

                         3.        The miseries due to divine disorder, i.e., Daivi Prakop.

The Auxiliary Aims in Order to Achieve the Fundamental Aims or Education:

                                  1.        The Physical Development: That is full development of the senses and organs of action.

                                  2.        The Mental Development: Full development of the mind is such a way as to make the ideas coming from it indicative of positive actions.

                                 3.        The Emotional Development: To develop such a self-consciousness in which the Satva (righteousness) predominates.

                               4.        The Intellectual Development: The development of intellect (Buddhi) to make it (intellect) free of the slavery of senses and to involve it in the experience of the spirit (Purush).

                               5.        The Moral Development: For this development it is necessary that the individual does not indulge in speaking lies, in violence in stealing in accumulating superfluous wealth and in sexual matters; in other words, the individual has to be instructed to follow the austerity of Satya, Ahimsa, Asteiya, Aparigrah and Brahmacharya (i.e. truth, non-violence, not stealing, not collecting, unnecessary wealth and continence).

The Conceptof the Curriculum According to Sankhya Philosophy:

                     The curriculum is a means for achieving the aims of education. Sankhya philosophy admits the importance of both physical and spiritual aspects of life. So it wants that both these aspects should be duly developed. Therefore, the curriculum should provide scope for the development of knowledge and activities pertaining to material and spiritual realms of life according to the various stages of development of an individual.

                    According to Sankhya during infancy senses and organs of actions (Gyanendriyas and Karmendriyas) grow very rapidly. So the necessary environment should be provided to children for their full development. They should be allowed to play under an open environment which has adequate light and fresh air. They should be allowed to come under direct contact with nature as far as possible in order to promote the development of their various senses and organs of actions. In the modern age, out of her many other methods Maria Montessori of Italy, too has advocated this procedure for development of young children.

                     Sankhya is also aware of the chief propensities of an individual’s development during childhood when mind, self-consciousness and intellect begin to develop quite rapidly. Accordingly, suitable provision should be made in the course of studies for the due growth of these aspects of one’s life. For this, language, literature, social studies, mathematics and physics etc. should be suitably included in the curriculum in terms of the demands of chiuld development.

                     Sankhya philosophy is of the view that during adolescence the concept of ‘self’ starts assuming a permanent form and the individual is able to take independent judgment. Therefore, for adolescents difficult subjects involving reasoning should be particularly taught along with other subjects. Sankhya philosophy stands for individual merit of all person. It recognizes the independent status of each soul. Therefore, each person should be given education as his development warrants. This means that all types of subjects should be included in the curriculum and each should be taught according to his interests and aptitudes. Sankhya believes that an individual is ever-going. Therefore, there is a need for his continual education till he is able to distinguish between matter and spirit (Prakriti and Purush).

The Method of Teaching:

                     According to Sankhya there are two principal means for acquiring knowledge. These are external and internal. Under the external means senses and organs of actions may be included. Under the internal ones come mind (Maras), self-consciousness (Aham or Ahamkar), intellect (Mahat) and soul (Purush). According to Sankhya the co-operation between matter (i.e. Jad, senses, mind, self-consciousness and Buddhi and soul) is necessary.

To Sankhya there are three means of acquiring knowledge:

                            1.        Through the senses (Pratakshya)

                              2.        Inference (Anuman)

                           3.        The statement of some authority or Vedas.

1. The Pratakshya Vidhi:

                      In this Vidhi or method, the learner obtains the knowledge of a certain object or activity through his own senses. According to Sankhya the knowledge thus obtained reaches even the soul (Atma) through mind, self-consciousness (Ahamka) and intellect (Buddhi). A knowledge may be a knowledge and usable in life only when there is a perfct co-ordination between senses, mind (Manas), self-consciousness (Ahamkar), intellect (Buddhi) and soul (Atma). For acquisition of knowledge the co-operation between the matter (Jad) and spirit (Chetan or Purush) is necessary.

                      Thus according to Sankhya in the Pratakshya Vidhi both the external and internal means of knowledge co-operate. Only then the knowledge becomes stable or permanent. Needless to remark that the Pratyaksh Vidhi is the first requisite for learning anything.

2. The Anuman Vidhi:

                      The term Anuman (or inference) means the knowledge based on some previous knowledge (or experience). Thus in the Anuman Vidhi we try to infer about some unknown subject on the basis of some known subject. According to Sankhya there are two types of Anuman, 1. Veet and 2. Aveet. The Anuman which is based on eternal negation (Shaswat Nishedh) is called. According to Sankhya Anuman (inference) is made on the basis of some concrete proof or testimony (Praman), then alone it is beneficial and when a concrete proof is lacking it may be harmful. Sankhya philosophy has hit here at a truism. The meaning of language is obtained through some inference. The inductive and deductive or analytic and synthetic method of teaching is only an experimentation on the Anuman Vidhi (Inference method). A researcher proceeds on his investigation on the basis of Anuman (inference).

3. Shabda Vidhi: As we have already said above, the meaning of Shabda is the statement (Vachan) or a trustworthy person (e.g. the Vedavani-statements in the Vedas). A trustworthy person is he who has the real knowledge of basic elements and of soul (spirit). Thus the Shabda Vidhi is that method in which we repose confidence in the statements of distinguished persons and acquire knowledge through the great books written by them. According to Sankhya philosophy at places where it is not possible to acquire knowledge on the basis of Pratakshya, the perceivable and Anuman (inference), the testimony of Shabda should be relied on. But the learner should always weigh the knowledge thus acquired on the balance of his perceivable knowledge (Pratakshya Gyan)

                     The Shabda Vidhi is a very universal method of acquiring knowledge. Even today we employ this method for learning many things. The oral, question-answer description and interpretation or exposition method of modern teaching may be easily grouped under the Shabda Vidhi. The text-book material also is a form of Shabda Vidhi. Supervised-study-method is a very clear example of Shabda Vidhi. Press, Radio, Cinema and TV are only other examples of Shabda Vidhi learning in the modern age.

Discipline (Anushashan):

                      Sankhya philosophy accepts the concept of discipline as advocated by the Yoga philosophy. Yama and Niyam are the first two principles of discipline according to Yoga philosophy. The term Yam means control (Sanyam) of thought, speech and deed (Manasa, Vacha and Karmana). For this control, the Yoga recommends observance of truth speaking practice of non-violence, non-stealing, non-accumulating of superfluous wealth and observance of continence (Brahmacharya). Niyam is the second aspect of discipline according to Yoga. Yoga recommends five Niyams (or disciplines) cleanliness (Sauch), contentment (Santosh), penance (Tap), self-study (Swadhyaya) and dedicating everything to God and being always rapt into his meditation (Pranidhan). Sankhya philosophy is in perfect agreement with the concept of discipline as recommended by the Toga philosophy. Sankhya believes that without following these three rules (disciplines) of life no one can be pure and healthy in thought, speech and deed.

The Teacher:

                      According to the Sankhya philosophy the teacher should be a trustworthy and ideal person. He should have a vivid knowledge about the distinction between the matter and spirit (Prakriti and Purush). Such a teacher alone can develop true knowledge in his students.

The Student:

                      The Sankhya is Anekatmvadi Darshan, that is, this philosophy believes in many souls. There is no ‘one soul’ but many. Each one’s soul has its own entity. With this philosophical outlook the Sankhya philosophy respects the personality of each student. Hence it wants that the personality of each student should be fully developed. Each individual has the three attributes of Satva, Raj and Tam. Accordingly Sankhya philosophy enjoins each student to be disciplined and behave morally. Through such a behavior alone will he be able to distinguish between the basic elements of matter and spirit (Prakriti and Purush).

The School:

                     During the development days of Sankhya philosophy the Gurukuls were working as seats of learning. In these Gurukuls individual teaching was in vogue. There was no group teaching, except group discussion in an assembly of learned person at occasions.

An Evaluation of Sankhya Philosophy as an Educational Philosophy:

                     The Sankhya philosophy accepts the existence of both matter, Prakriti, Jad and spirit (Purush or Chetan). Thus this philosophy recognizes the materialistic as well as spiritual aspects of life. But other systems of Indian philosophy have bitterly criticized its concepts of atheism (Amishwaravad) and the existence of many souls. However, the logical analysis as presented by Sankhya appears to be quite scientific. Hence, its philosophy is of great educational import. The Sankhya philosophy accepts man as a composite of both matter and spirit. Therefore, it emphasizes as already referred to above, both the aspects of human life that is materialistic and spiritualistic. In this way, it emphasizes an all-round development of man. This concept of development points out the necessity of enrichment of the course of studies in order that the educational needs of all types of individuals may be served.

                      The Sankhya philosophy has preserved a psychological analysis of the importance of Praman (the perceivable), Anuman (inference) and Shabda (the word of great trustworthy authority). The role of mine (Man), self-consciousness (Ahamkar), intellect (Buddhi) and soul (Atma) in the process of learning has been vividly explained by the Sankhya philosophy. The modern psychologists should try to understand the importance of these basic concepts in learning.

                     Sankhya’s concepts of student, teacher and discipline though quite old, may even be accepted today as it difficult to overlook the same if we want to strengthen our educational edifice. Who will not accept the concept of discipline as advocated by Sankhya? Who will not accept the Sankhya concept of an ideal student? Who will not accept the Sankhya concept of a learned teacher? The Sankhya philosophy accepts the individual personality of man. Needless remark that this concept appears to be at the root of modern democracy.

Summary:

                      Kapil, the propounder of Sankhya philosophy. Sankhya has 25 fundamental elements. Salvation possible only after knowledge of the 25 elementals. Deliverance is the ultimate purpose of education. To get freedom from the three fold miseries of life. Curriculum scope pertaining to material and spiritual realms. Yoga type of discipline is necessary. Teacher should be a trustworthy and an ideal person. Individual learning in the Gurukuls. Sankhya philosophy emphasizes the development of all aspects of life.

 PHILOSOPHY OF YOGA AND EDUCATION

                      Maharshi Patanjali has been the propounder of the Yoga philosophy. So some people call it Patanjali philosophy. The literature of Yoga philosophy is not so extensive as those of other Indian philosophies, but it is a very scientific philosophy. All philosophies accept its importance. We find discussion on Yoga in Vid, Upanishads, Smritis and Puranas etc. That is why it is considered of great significance. It is being very widely advertised these days throughout the world. A specialty of this philosophy is that unlike other philosophies it is not only theoretical but also practical. Healthy body and powerful soul both are the subjects of its study. Unlike other philosophies, the Yoga philosophy does not consider the body as insignificant, but it regards it as very useful. This philosophy believes that the mind can be pure only when the body is healthy and the purity of the mind will lead to faculty of mental process (Chitta).

The Main Principles of Yoga Philosophy:

The Form of Yoga:

                     Patanjali Yoga is the control of the aspiration and ambition of the mind. The purpose of Yoga is to understand the real form of soul. But this form can be understood only when all the aspirations and ambitions of the mind are controlled. The perfect control over the aspirations and ambitions is the status of Yoga. Just as in oscillating water we cannot see the form of a thing, similarly when the mind is not wandering and it is controlled, the form of God may be realized. To see the form of God is Yoga meditation (Yoga Samridhi).

The Aspects of Yoga:

                      There are eight aspects (parts) of Yoga. They are called Ashtang Yoga. These eight parts are

                         1.        Yama

                           2.        Niyam

                       3.        Asan

                      4.        Pranayam

                      5.        Pratyahar

                      6.        Dharana

                     7.        Dhyan and

                     8.        Samadhi

By observance of these aspects, ignorance (Avidya) is wiped off and real knowledge (Yathartha Gyan) is achieved. As the Sadhak (devotee or accomplisher) proceeds further, his ignorance vanishes. After the perfect attainment of Yoga, wisdom (Vivek) is awakened. So the purpose of Yoga is to achieve wisdom and to wipe off ignorance. Now we come across the Explanation of the eight aspects of Yoga as follows:

                               1.        Yama: Yama means absence. Absence of violence, untruth, stealing intercourse and seizing is Yama.

There are five aspects of Yama - they are:

                                i.            Non-violence

                             ii.            Truth

                           iii.            Not stealing

                           iv.            Continence and

                             v.            Not accumulating superfluous wealth. Never having animosity against any creature is non-violence.

                                 2.        Niyam: The Niyam (the rules) are five viz.,

                                i.            Sauch or purity

                             ii.            Santosh or contentment

                           iii.            Tap or penance

                           iv.            Swadhyaya or continuous study of Vedas.

                             v.            Ishwar Pranidhan or the concentration in God and offering everything to him.

                           3.        Asan: The stability and feeling comfort in a posture is Asan.

                           4.        Pranayam: The control of breath while inhaling (Purak), keeping it in the lungs for sometime (Kumbhak) and exhaling out (Rechak) are the three processes of Pranayam.

                             5.        Pratyahar: Pratyahar is controlling the mind by keeping away the organs of senses from external attractions. To cut the relationship of the various sense organs from their respective subject is Pratyahar.

                            6.        Dharana: To apply the mind to some internal subjects is Dharana.

                            7.        Dhyan: To concentrate attention on a particular subject of the mind is Dhyan.

                            8.        Samadhi: Samadhi is attained when the attention becomes the objective. At this stage, the object of attention is not separate from the process of attention instead the process of attention is merged into the objective (Dhyeya). When Dhyan becomes stable in the Dhyeya, then there is Samadhi.

Chitta Vritti Vichaar (The Concept of Chitta-Vritti)

                     As we have discussed earlier when the objects or ambitions of the Chitta (the mental process) are controlled the Jeeva Swaroop. The Vritti is of two types, difficult and easy, that is pain-giving and painless. Maharshi Patanjali has spoken of five types of Vritti. They are as follows:

                              1.        Praman-Vritti

                              2.        Viparayaya-Vritti

                               3.        Vikalp-Vritti

                              4.        Nidra-Vritti

                               5.        Smriti-Vritti

We shall understand all these five as follows:-

                                 1.        Praman-Vritti: Praman is the measurement through which we attain true knowledge.

                                  2.        Viparayaya-Vritti: It is false knowledge. It does not give the true picture of a situation.

                                   3.        Vikalpa-Vritti: Vikalpa is that knowledge which is dependent on words in the absence of the object itself. Vikalpa is an element of thinking. Whatever knowledge is available in books is of the Vikalpa type.

                                  4.        Nidra-Vritti: In a Nidra (dream) the object which is not present appears to be present.

                                    5.        Smriti-Vritti: Not losing the experienced subject is Smriti (memory).

Tools of Control of the Mental Processes (Vritti)

                      Abhyas (Exercise) Vairagya (freedom from worldly desires) and Ishwarpranidhan are the three principal tools of controlling the Vritti (mental process).

                               1.        Abhyas: The efforts applied for making a situation stable is Abhyas. If Abhyas is continued for a long time and if it is done with devotion, it becomes firmly fixed.

                              2.        Vairagya: To remove the mental process from the desires of worldly things in Vairagya.

                                 3.        Ishwarpranidhan: It is also a Yoga discipline means to enter into God or to merge ourself into him to surrender oneself entirely to Him. The purpose of worship (Upasana) is to come so near Him that there is no distinction between oneself and Him.

The Nature of God and the Outcome of God-Devotion

The Nature of God: God is the embodiment of limbless knowledge. God is the Guru of even the ancient Rishis, because He is not governed by time (Kal).

The Outcome of Devotion to God: This outcome is of two types:

        i.            The eyes of the devotee are opened and he begins to see Purush and Parampurush.

     ii.            Obstruction to concentration and flaw of Chitta (mental process) begin to evaporate.

Samadhi Sadhan Pad

                     Sadhan Pad is the second part of Yoga philosophy. This part is not limited to the description of various tools of Yoga nor does it discuss all the tools of Yoga. Within this part we shall refer only to the Panch Klesh.

The Panch Klesh (The Five Obstructions): These are Avidya, Asmita, Rag-Dwesh and Abhiniwesh. We shall understand the meaning of these below:

       i.            Avidya: It is false knowledge (Midhya Gyan).

    ii.            Asmita: In Asmita the present state of consciousness is given so much importance that the welfare of the entire life is left behind. As an influence of Asmita the individual begins to understand himself as of the highest importance in the world. In disturbing the balance between the individual and social life. Asmita plays a major role.

 iii.            &    iv.      Rag-Dwesh: Man considers himself as an intellectual being. Unfortunately his life is not always guided by his intellect. Emotions step into the arena and the whole thing is disturbed. Due to Rag and Dwesh he is not able to perceive anything into the right perspective. Rag & Dwesh make one’s life bitter.

     v.            Abhiniwesh: Abhiniwesh is the fear of death. It has been said in the Yogasutra that fear of death pains the ignorant as well as the Pandit (the learned person). Love of life is associated with life itself. On the other hand, the possibility of death is always felt. Some people do not understand why they are afraid of death. As long as we are living we happen to be spared death. When death occurs, then we shall go beyond pain. 

Yog-Vibhutian (The Special Powers or Excellencies of Yoga):

What is Vibhuti?

                      Some contend that in a philosophical discussion no place of Vibhuti is warranted. The one who takes Yoga as a tool for attaining special powers becomes misguided from his real path. The following ones are considered as the Vibhutian.

                             1.        A Yogi knows about the knowledge of the past and future.

                              2.        A Yogi knows about the time of his death. He comes to know about his previous birth.

                             3.        A Yogi through concentration of his attention is able to know about the sun, the moon and the stars. Similarly, he knows about his internal organs.

                             4.        He hears divine message or words. The sky does not put any obstruction before him. He can see things which are hidden from him.

                           5.        He can read the thoughts of others without asking anyone about the same.

                            6.        He can develop his power like that of an elephant any time.

                             7.        He becomes above thirst and hunger. During meditation he may remain without food and water.

                                8.        He can conquer demons. The gravity of earth may be suspended for him. He may walk in the sky. He may stay in the air-atmosphere.

                             9.        He may cross the limit of his body. He may rule over others by entering into their bodies.

                          10.      He may make his body invisible to others.

Kaiwalya:

                     The consciousness of having acquired the wisdom (Vivek) on the part of a Yogi is also a kind of bondage. He must rise above this as well. When he rises above even this, he gets deliverance from the influence of evil spirits, worldly miseries and possible spiritual obstructions. After this the individual gets detachment from all types of attributes. This stage is called Kaiwalya. In Kaiwalya the Yogi becomes a Kewali. This is the peak of Yoga.

Ishwar (God):

                      The subject of Ishwar occupies a very important place in the Yoga philosophy. Pranav is a synonym of Ishwar. By the Jap (repetition) Pranav the Yogi is able to concentrate and acquires control over his mental process. Ishwar has never been in bondage and will never come into any bondage. Ishwar is full of Gyan (knowledge), Iccha (desires) and power of activity. None is as powerful as Ishwar. Ishwar has always been Ishwar and will always remain Ishwar. He is full of excellences. He knows everything. He is always free (Mukta). In addition to the 25 elements as propounded by Sankhya philosophy, Patanjali has not attributed any element (other than the 25 ones) to Ishwar. Thus, inspite of having multifarious peculiarities, Ishwar remains only a Purush Vishesh (special person). Ishwar has nothing to do for Himself. Still to be kind to all creatures is His mission.

Educational Implications of Yoga Philosophy

                      These days there are some aspects of Yoga in the activities of our educational institutions. Our central government, at times, telecasts some Yogic programmes in physical exercises for improving the health of viewers. In these programmes, sometimes a brief description about the utility and importance of Yoga is also given in the form of questions and answers. In colleges of physical education in our country the topic of Yoga has also been given a place in the curriculum. But the teaching and practice of the same is never taken up seriously. It is true that the purpose of teaching Yoga practices to our young boys and girls cannot be to make them experts in the art and science of the same. But what is really needed is to emphasize the importance of the eight parts of the Yoga which include: Yama, Niyam, Asan, Pranayam, Pratyahar, Dharana, Dhyan and Samadhi. We have already explained the meaning of the terms in the forgiving pages. Hence they do not need reception here.

                     It may be noted that Yoga practices are helpful not only for one’s health but for the general uplift of an individual. Needless to ad that we may solve many of our mental and other problems with the help of principles of Yoga provided they are practiced in right earnest.

                     Just as teachers are trained for teaching various subjects in our schools, similarly some able persons should also be trained in Yogic exercise. And one such person should be appointed in each school for training our students in Yogic practices at least for their physical well-being.

                     There can be no denying of the fact that the ideal of Yoga is meant for persons who are free from worldly attachment and it will never be possible to encourage the students in general to fall in line with the same for obvious reasons. Nonetheless, the significance of Yoga will be evergreen for the good of the entire mankind. Thanks to the great seer Patanjali.

Summary:

                     The main aim of Yoga philosophy is to control the aspirations and ambitions of the mind and to understand the real form of soul. Eight aspects of Yoga-Yam, Niyam, Asan, Pranayam, Pratyahar, Dharana, Dhyan and Samadhi. Ignorance is wiped off. Wisdom is awakened through these 8 aspects. Peak of Yoga is to get detached from all types of attributes. God knows everything and to see his form is Yoga meditation. To emphasize the 8 aspects of Yoga to the students in our educational institutions. Specially trained teachers for these schools.

 NYAYA PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

                    Gautama Aksapada was the first to systemize the Nyaya Sutras, which existed by then. It is a system of logical realism. This philosophy has emphasized on conditions of correct thinking and means of acquiring a true knowledge of reality. It is a system to develop logical thinking and rigorous criticism. It is basically system of logic and epistemology but it can also be considered as a philosophy of life like other Indian systems of philosophy.

                     The profound work done by Gautama is in the form of Nyaya Sutras, which was divided into five adhyayas or books. Each consists of two sections or ‘ahnikas’.

v Vatsyayana                                                - Nyayabhasaya

v Uddyotakara                                             - Nyaya-Varttika

v Vacaspati’s                                                 - Nyaya-Varttika-Tatparaya-Tika

v Udayana’                                                     - Nyaya-Varttika-Tatparaya-

                                                                          Parisuddhi

v Kusymanjati’s & Jayanta’s                    - Nyaya Manjari

v Ganesa                                                         - Navya-Nyaya (Modem School)

They all made a lot of critiques, by attacking, counterattacking and with defense on the practice of Nyaya and gradually the new Nyaya an epoch made by Ganesa.

The Nyaya philosophy can be understood comprehensively under four dimensions. They are:

                                 1.        The theory of knowledge

                                 2.        The theory of physical world.

                                 3.        The theory of individual self and liberation.

                                 4.        The theory of God.

This philosophy can be elaboration of 16 philosophical issues/aspects like:

                                 1.         Praman

                                 2.         Prameya

                                 3.         Samasya

                                 4.         Prayojana

                                 5.         Drstanta

                                 6.         Siddhanta

                                 7.         Avayava

                                 8.         Niyam

                                 9.         Vada

                              10.      Jalpa

                              11.      Vitanda

                              12.      Hetvabhasa

                              13.      Chala

                              14.      Jati

                              15.      Tarka

                              16.      Nigrahaschana

              1.     Pramana – Knowing things truly which includes all sources of knowledge.

               2.     Prameya – An object of true knowledge. According to Nyaya the objects of true knowledge are

                               I.            Self (Atrna)

                            II.            Body (Sarira)

                         III.            Senses (Indriya)

                         IV.            Sensible Qualities (Artha)

                            V.            Cognition (Buddhi) or (Jnana) and Apprehension (Upalabdhi)

                         VI.            Mind(Manas)

                      VII.            Activity (Pravriti) – Vocal

                                       Mental           Good or Bad

                                       Bodily

                   VIII.            Mental Defects (Dosa)

a.      Raga (Attachment)

b.     Dvesa (Hatred)

c.      Moha (Infatuation)

                          IX.            Rebirth (Pratyabhava)

                             X.            Pleasure and Pain Experiences (Phala)

                          XI.            Suffering (Dukha)

                       XII.            Liberation from Suffering (Apavaga)

               3.        Samsya- A state of uncertainity

               4.        Prayojana – Work to attain desirable.

               5.        Drstanta – Undisputed fact general rule.

               6.        Siddhanta ­– Doctrine i.e. certain

               7.        Avayana – Any of the five propositions of syllogism

               8.        Tarka – Hypothetical argument

               9.        Nirnaya – Certain knowledge through legitimate methods.

            10.      Vada ­– Discussion with the help of pramanas and tarka (vada – prativadi – arrive at truth)

            11.      Jalpa – Vadi and Prativadi aim only at victory over each other.

            12.      Vitanda – The opponents do not establish themselves instead refute others/exponent

            13.      Metvabhasa – Appears as a reason but in reality not a valid reason.

            14.      Chala – Kind of unfair reply to contradict a statement.

            15.      Jati – Unfair reply based on false analogy. In other words a futile argument.

            16.      Nigrahasthana – Misunderstanding about one’s own or other party’s statement i.e. defeat in the debate.

Nyaya a Logical Realism: Reality

                     Existence of objects and things of the world are independent of the knowledge or mind, whereas the images, ideas; feelings of pleasure and pain are dependent on some mind i.e. an individual mind is necessary to experience them. The realistic view about the wordily realities is based on logical grounds and critical reflections. Liberation is possibly only through true knowledge of reality. This true knowledge gives an insight into an understanding of what knowledge is. How to distinguish true knowledge from false knowledge?

Epistemology or Theory of Knowledge

                      The theory of reality of Nyayikas is dependent on theory of knowledge. The acceptable/approved sources

According to Nyaya, system of philosophy

               1.        Perception – Pratyaksha

               2.        Inference – Anumana

               3.        Comparison – Upamana

               4.        Testimony – Sabda

1. Perception

                      According to Nyayikas perception can be definite cognition, which is produced by sense-object contact and is true.

                     For instance I perceive an object/thing i.e. I see a fruit i.e. my eye is in contact with that fruit and I am sure of that fruit before me. But in case of a distant object, think about something else; thus perception is an indefinite cognition i.e. not a true perception.

                     In other words perception can also be defined as immediate eognition or cognition due to the stimulation of the sensory organs. Many other systems and some of Nyayikas also accepted it. Vedantins and some of the principles of the Nyayikas reject perception without sense-object contact.

Savikalpa (Determinate)

                     This perception is called Vivecaca or judgment of the object i.e. after analysis, synthesis, the senses data is interpreted through Manas or the mind. In other words the individual perceives the qualities of the things and their relationship with others i.e., they are expressed with subject predicate proposition e.g. ‘this is a bat’, ‘that is blue sky’ etc.

2. Inference (Anumana)

                      Anumana literally means (Anu- after, mana-knowledge) a cognition or knowledge, which follows some other knowledge. For instance, “The hills is fiery”, because it smokes and whenever it smokes, it is fiery.

                    Here we start with the perception of smoke in the hill to the knowledge of existence of fire in the hill i.e., based on our previous he is a man and all men are mortal.

    v Thus, from the examples it can be understood that inference is  a process of reasoning in which.

    v We pass from apprehension of some mark – Linga

    v To that of something else by establishing a concomitant relation between the two – Vyapti

    v According to Dr. B.N. Seel, it is can be stated like this.

Anumana (Inference) is the process of ascertaining, not by perception or direct observation, but through the instrumentality or medium of a mark (Linga) that thing possesses a certain character.

The different constituents of inference:

                     Thus it can be understood that an inference must have its constituent three terms and at least three proportions.

                     The inference (character) we arrive at is the knowledge of some mark and that of its universal relation.

                     From the first example, we have arrived at the inference, which we have not perceived i.e., an invariable relation between smoke and fire.

From the example

Subject – Hill – Paksa – Minor term

Object – Fire – Sadhya – Major term

                 Smoke – Linga – Middle term

Reason – Hetu – Relation between two

                      The mark or sign, which indicates the presence of fire, which is called the hetu or sadhana i.e. reason. This reasoning is in correspondence with the syllogism’s minor, major and middle terms.

Inference:

                          1.  Apprehension is about hetu (smoke) in the paksha

                          2.  Recollection of the universal relation between linga sadhya(smoke & fire)

                         3.  Cognition of the sadhya (fire) as related to paksha (hill).

                          i.            The hill is fiery                                                        - prediction of sadhya

                       ii.            Because the hill is smoky                                     - affirmation of hetu

                     iii.            Wherever there is fire there is smoke

Affirmation of the hetu is as invariably related to the sadhya

                     The above discussion is according to Nyayikas, Sankhya Pramanas are accepted by Yoga & Yoga has accepted Nyayikas view. Inference is further divided into two kinds they are:

                             1.  Vita or affirmative.

                               2.  A vita or negative.

3. Upamana or Comparision

                      It is the third source of valid knowledge according to Nyayikas. This is not accepted by any other system of Eastern philosophies as a separate valid source of knowledge.

                      Upasana is nothing but acquiring knowledge about something by comparing it with the similarities of the other familiar things for example: A child or man recognize Guvaya as similar to Cow and remembers the description and acquires knowledge that “The Guvaya is an animal resembling the Cow”, but other systems dill it as a form of inference.

4. Sabda (Testimony)

                      The fourth source of valid knowledge according to Nyayikas is Sabda. The statements/sentences come from a trustworthy person authoritative texts or sources.

Sabda could be

                    The Sabda i.e., from Vedas we acquire true knowledg. This can be acquired by means of super sensuous realities which cannot come into the pureview of perception  and inference.

                      The Vedas are not written by ordinary men but are produced by seers/sages and these are not eternal but the arise out of spiritual experiences of sages in the meditative super conscious state called as ‘Apauruseya’. This knowledge is accepted as true knowledge and is conserved and preserved through one generation to another by a continuous line of instruction.

                      Thus these are the three sources of knowledge accepted by Sankhya Yoga as the valid pramanas of knowledge.

Laukika                              - Secular                              - not all valid, it is the  testimony  of the human beings, may be true or false.

Vaidika                               - Scriptual                             - it is perfect and infalliable.

                      Sabda is based on the words of some trustworthy person, human or divine. Thus Sabda gives knowledge of certain things either through spoken or written sentences by some authoritative persons.

                     According to Nyayikas a sentence should have a logical structure and it consisits of words, which convey some meaning. According to them an intelligible sentence should have four conditions.

                              1.  Akanksha  (Expectancy) – Quality of words and the interdependency of words which convey a complete meaning.

                            2.  Yogyata – Mutual fitness of the words.

                            3.  Sannidhi (Asatti) – The proximity between the words of a sentence.

                          4.  Tatparya – The meaning conveyed by a sentence.

Nyaya’s View on Physical World

                     The world of objects of knowables which are not found in the physical world are pramanas. According to Nyayikas, the physical elements time, space and akasa constitute this physical world. The ultimate constituents of this physical world are unchanging atoms of earth, water, fire and air. All the products are the composite forms of the atoms with those qualities. Nyaya also agrees with the theory of Vaiseikas.

Concept of Self and its Liberation

                     They adopt the realistic view of self. Self is a unique substance which experiences all cognitions  related to feelings of desire, aversion, volition, pleasure, pain. Self is indestructible, infinite and is not limited by time and space. Self is dinct from mind/manas, body and senses and also the consciousness.

                      Self can be interpreted either through testimony of spiritual authorities or by inference. Self can be experienced through internal perception. According to Nyayikas the state of negation is where the soul is released from all apin suffering and all bondages/bonds with their body and senses. It attains freedom from pain and pleasure i.e. the soul exists as a pure substance and attainment to eternal bliss. To attain liberation it needs to know the self of Tattva-Jnana i.e. self is different from body, mind, senses etc.

From liberation

True knowledge (Tattva Jnana)

1. Sravana (listens to scriptual knowledge)

2. Manana (through reasoning – knowledge of self)

3. Nidhidyasana (meditate on the self in conformity with the principles of Yoga)

True knowledge can be the cessation/liberation from all pain and suffering, desires and impulses.

Nyaya Theology and the Concept of God

                      There is no explicit mention of God in Nyayikas. But they feel that the grace of God is necessary for the liberation of the self. Also they feel God is the eternal, infinite self, who is the basis for the creation, sustenance and destruction. He governs all the individuals and self morally.

The existence of God can be proved through:

                            1.  The theory of causation – ‘casual argument’

Every thing exists with cause and effect relation. The mountains, stars, rivers etc are due to the creator who created i.e. karta for all these existence.

                            2.  Argument of Adrsta

Some are happy and some are miserable on this earth due to their own deeds, good or bad or merits or demerits, which are determined by our own actions. Then good deeds give punya and bad deeds give papa. This adrista has to be guided by a person i.e. God.

                           3.  The authority of scriptures

On the basis of authority of Vedas the supreme authority or the author of Vedas i.e. the author is omnipresent. God who has the direct knowledge of all objects, past, present, future, finite, infinite, sensible and supersensible. The vedas and all other scriptures are revealed by God.

                          4.  Sruthi as a Testimony

Vedic scriptures proves god’s existence. He is the eternal higher self-all pervading hidden everywhere. Sruthi is helping us in experiencing the God and to develop belief in God. There are also antiheistic arguments.

Educational Implications of Nyayika’s

                     This is basically a system of philosophy, which laid more focus on the acquisition of knowledge through different sources or pramanas. It is a major contribution to the knowledge acquisition process. Thus the implications that can be drawn from this system are:

The very insights for the education could be:

          1.     Aims

    To provide

               1.     The skills of logical thinking.

               2.     Rigorous criticism.

               3.     Science of reasoning.

             4.     Science of critical study.

              5.     More importantly the liberation as the ultimate aim.

             6.     Absolute cessation of pain and suffering.

             7.     Acquire the knowledge of reality i.e. self

             8.     To solve the problems of life, logic and epistemology.

              2.     Curriculum

It can be understood from the basic 4 concepts of philosophy i.e. the emphasis laid on learning about the various sources of knowledge.

         v Physical world which is through scientific approch about the individual self.

         v Process of liberation.

         v Testimony of Vedas.

         v Theology related to existence of God.

         v Language.

              3.     Methods

Nyayika’s philosophy explicitly focuses on the following for obtaining knowledge.

-         Perception                   - Recitation                          - Meditation

-         Inference                      - Lecture                              

-         Upamana                      - Logical

-         Sabda                             - Analytical

            4.     Discipline

Self discipline, freedom, spirituality and liberation through freedom of self Teacher should provide all the  necessary language to develop logical thinking and rigorous criticism.

VEDANT OR UPANISHAD PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

                      Upanishads are seeds of Indian philosophy. That is why, all the great Indian philosophers have written commentaries on Upanishads. Some philosophers regard Upanishads as Vedant. In support of this contention they say that the last part of Ved is Gyan Kand (Avanyak) which is altogether different form Karma Kand.

        1.     The Meaning of Upanishad: The syllable UP means SAMP. i.e., near and ‘NI’ stands for definteness (Nischayatmak). Upanishad means that knowledge (Vidya) which nulifies or undoes (destroys) ignorance (Avidya) and takes the desirous of salvation (Moksha) to Brahma or God and helps him to understand Him in the sense and thus cut the bondage of this world (that is the freedom from the cycle of birth and death). In other words, Upanishads refers to the knowledge (Vidya) which removes one’s ignorance, makes him free from the worldly bondage and leads him to attain the ultimate stage of bliss (Parampad).

       2.     Classification of Upanishads: Traditionally 108 Upanishads have been recognised. But only the following ones are considered as the main ones. They are Ishwasya, Ken. Kath, Prasna, Aitreya, Mundak, Mandukya, Taittariya, Chandogya, Brihadaranyak, Swetashwatar, Kwishi Taki, Maitrayani, Mahanarayana.

      3.     The Period of Upanishads: It is difficult to say definitely about the periods of the various Upanishads. It is believed that some of the oldest  Upanishads, such as Chhandogya, Brihadaranyak, Ken. Aitreya, Taittiriya, Kaushaitaki and Kath have been written before 600 B.C. and other ones might have been written at any time before 300 B.C., that is after Lord Buddha.

      4.     Upanishads as Chief Source of All Indian Philosophies: Various schools of Indian philosophies have been very much influenced by various Upanishads. All the theist schools quote from Upanishads in support of their contentions. Even many atheist schools also appear to have impactof Upanishads.

      5.     The Subject of the Upanishads: According to Shankaracharya Brahma Gyan (knowledge about God) is the subject of Upanishads. Through this Brahma Gyan a person attains salvation by knowing about birth and death. The knowledge of salvation (Moksha Gyan) is Brahma Gyan. This has been called Gupt Vidya i.e. secret knowledge (or light). Paul Diason also supports this viewpoint to some Upanishads are expositions of Vedic philosophy. As we have already stated above, probably due to this, Upanishads have also been called Vedani, i.e. the end of Ved. In fact, Vedant, as the meaning of Upanishads appears to be more appropriate. In short, as we said above, Upanishads tell us about Moksha Vidya or Brahma Vidya (the knowledge about the salvation or God).

Knowledge and Ignorance (Vidya and Avidya)

                     Discussion about the difference between knowledge and ignorance is the main subject of Upanishads. Para Vidya or Supreme Vidya (spiritual knowledge) is Brahma Vidya (knowledge about God). This knowledge is an instrument of salvation (Moksha). Apara Vidya (knowledge about mundane affairs) is worked centered knowledge (Karma Pradhan Vidya). There may be delay in getting the result of a Karma (work), but the result of knowledge is obtained immediately. A person immediately gets salvation (Mukta or Moksha) after obtaining Brahma Vidya. The Vedic rituals that is the Vedic Karma Kanda are of lower order. The Gyan Marg (the path of knowledge) as enjoined by the Upanishads is the supreme path (Shrestha Marg).

                     For salvation, the knowledge about self (Atma Gyan) is necessary. The intellectul knowledge (Buddhi Gyan) is not necessary for it. The Buddhi Gyan is a symbol of Apara Vidya (the knowledge about mundane affairs) and Atma Gyan is a symbol of Para Vidya (spiritual knowledge). Atma Gyan (self knowledge) is introvertive and Buddhi Gyan. Our senses normally run after external objects. It is necessary for an Atma Gyani (the one who knows his self) to divert his insight towards introversion. Extroversion is an obstruction in introversion. A spiritual devotee should draw in his external propensities and obtain self-insight (Antardarshan). Antardarshan is a step towards ‘self knowledge’. It is self-knowledge or Para Vidya (spiritual knowledge) which is an instrument of salvation (Moksha).

Param Tatva (Supreme Truth)

                      The subject of Param Tatva (supreme truth) is of highest importance in Upanishads. The entire world is a deformed appearance (Vikriti) of this supreme of ultimate truth. What is that by knowing which everything is revealed by itself? What is that which is ever conscious (Sachetan) ? What is that which is always active in creative work (Sristhi-Karya) and the body (Sharir) remain unconscious in sleep? What is that root (Mula) which is always rising in a new form even after continual death? In other words, what is the basic substance? What is the ultimate truth? What is soul? What is God? These problems have been resolved in the Upanishads.

What is called Param Tatva?

                      In the Upanishadic language the Param Tatva is the last substance, it is the root of all (Sarvadhar). What is the beginning (Adi) base and end (Anta) of this world (Jagat)? In the Upanishad the beginning base end of this world is Brahma (God). Therefore the Brahma is the Param Tatva (the ultimate truth). This is as also called Atma Tatva (the substance of truth of self).

Brahma Vichar (The Conecpt of God)

                      In the Upanishads the Brahma has been defined in two major forms; Par (infinite) and Apar (finites) or Nirguna (absolute) or infinite and Sagun(possessing attributes).

                     The Nirguna (or Par) Brahma cannot be described through adjectives or attributes. He is free of all attributes (He is Gunatita) Brahma is beyond (Pare) of all worldly attributes. In the Brihadaranayak Upanishad, it has been said that Brahma is not concrete (Sthool), not subtle (Sukhma), not short (Harasva), not long (Dirgha), not blood, not liquid, not shadow, not darkness, not juice, not smell, not air, not sky, not speech, not mind, not volume. He does not eatr anything. Nobody eats Him. This is the essence of the concept of Brahma as stated in the Kathopanishad, Mundakhopanishad and Kenospanishad. Thus the Nirguna Brahma is indescribeable (Anirvachaniya).

The Sagun Brahma

                      The Upar Brahma has been regarded as the Sagun Brahma. The Sagun Brahma has attributes. He may be described. Brahma is truth, knowledge and endless (Anant). In Chhandogya Upanishad Brahma is regarded as the cause of this world. God resides in all creatures. He is the chief actor (Sutrachhar) of the universe (Vishwa). He is the knower of all (Antaryami). He is all pervading. God is the soul of nature. It is the existence of God in Jeeva and Jagat (beings and world).

The difference between the Par and Apar or Nirguna and Sagun Brahma

                      The Par Brahma or Nirgun Brahma is endless (Anant) and monistic. From the philosophical viewpoint it is more important but the creation (Stisthi) cannot be explained through the concept of Nirgun Brahma. From the religious viewpoint God and Devotee, i.e., dualism cannot be explained. So from the religious viewpoint; the Sagun Brahma is more important in the form of creation of this universe, the Protector and the Destroyer.

The Concept or Soul  

                      In the Upanishads soul is regarded as immortal. It is fearless (Abhay), It is not liable to decay or old age (Ajar). Soul is different from Jeeva (being) and perishable world. It is different from mind, intellect and conceit. It is wholly unworldly, all pervading eternal and free from all bondage. In the Brihadaranyak Upanishad it has been proved as spiritual. Speech cannot describe it. Mind cannot conceive of it. Eyes cannot see it. Ears cannot listen it. But it may be noted that it is the soul that empowers the speech, mind, eyes and ears to perform their function. Soul has been regarded as the ear of ear, eyes of eyes, speech of speech, mind of mind. In the Maitri Upanishad it has been said that body is charriot and the soul is its driver. Soul is purely’ peaceful, eternal and completely free. In the Kishitaki Upanishad soul has been conceived as master of the body and governor of the senses. Soul pervades from the finger-nails to the top head. All the senses obey the soul.

Four Positions of the soul:

Consciousness is the nature (Swarup) of soul, but this consciousness has four positions as below:

                       i.      Awakened (Jagrat): This is the first position in which the subject of soul is the external world.

                     ii.      Dream (Swapna): This is the second stage in which the subject of the soul is internal. In this position the consciouness uses subtle subjects.

                     iii.      In the third position the consciousness does not use either internal or external subject. In this position consciousness is called Pragya.

                      iv.      The fourth position is that of Turiya. In this position the consciousness does not use any subject internal or external, nor any kind of pleasure. Turiya is the pure position of soul. It is neither consciousness nor unconsciousness. This consciousness or soul is regarded as the Pram Tatva (or the Ultimate Truth). Eyes cannot see it, hands cannot touch it. It is indescribable.

Kosh or Atwa

                      The Panchavad of Upanishad is very famous. In the Panchkosha a search has been made for the ultimate truth. The Panchakosha are as below:

                     1.  Annamaya Kosh – Food is the ultimate truth.

                    2.  Pranayama Kosh – Pran is the ultimate truth.

                   3.  Manomaya Kosh – Mind is the ultimate truth.

                   4.  Vigyanmaya Kosh – Vigyan or intellect (Buddhi) is the ultimate truth.

                   5.  Anandamaya Kosh – Ananta (Soul) is the ultimate truth (Brahma).

                     What is the ultimate truth due to which this world is created and this word exists and after sometime it is destroyed? This ultimate truth is not Anna, not Pran, not Man, not Buddhi – but this is the Anandamaya Atma (Brahma). The pure eternal Atma (Soul) is different from Sthool Deh (concrete body), Pran (life), Man (mind) and Buddhi (intellect) etc. This is pure Anandamaya (Blissful) consciousness. This is Brahma.

The two forms of Moksha (Salvation)Tadatma or the first form:

                    In the Upanishads Moksha is regarded as the Param Purusharth. The extinction of birth and death is Mokasha. This is called attainment of immortality. In the Upanishads there are two explanations of Moksha – Tadatma and Samipya. Tadatma is the perfect identification of the Atma (Soul) with the Brahma (God). Shankaracharya and the other advocates of Advaitvad (Monism) regard Moksha as the Tadatma identification of the Atma (soul) with Brahma (God). Just as rivers lose their identity by falling into an ocean, similarly the Jeeva (the being) loses its identity by being merged into Brahma. This is the unity between Atma and Brahma (soul and God).

Samipya The Second Form of Moksha:

                      To be near God is the Moksha for the devotee. Immortality is the attainment of the Dev-Loka (the abode) or the place of God, where the devotee enjoys pleasures through being (Samipya) with God. Ramanuja and other philsophers accept this kind of Moksha.

Gyan (Knowledge) is the Instrument of Moksha¸ Not Karma (Work):

                      According to Mundakopanishad the entire personality is purified through knowledge and thereby the individual attains Brahma. This is not possible through eyes, speech, penance or work.

Bhakti (Devotion) and Upasana (Worship):

                      In the Chhandogya Upanishad, it has been stated that salvation may be attained through devotion and worship of Brahma (God).

The Concept of Maya (Asatya-Untruth) in the Upanishads:

                      Maya has been mentioned several times in many Upanishads. In the Brihmdaranyak Upanishad Maya has been accepted as very powerful. At one place it has been said that Indra took many forms through his Maya-a juggler and He creates the world through His Maya. In this Upanishad it is said that the Jeeva (the being) comes into the bondage of Maya. In Kathopanishad Maya is considered as a synonym of untruth. In the Chhandogya Upanishad it has been stated that because of the net of Maya we fail to recognise the true (Satya) Atma. Atma is all the time in our heart. The one he reaches near Atma attains deliverance (Mukta). In the Prasnopanishad it is said that until we abandon Asatya (untruth) and Maya we cannot obtain Brahmaloka. Thus in the Upanishads Maya has been described in various ways, but we do not find in them a systematic philosophical principle regarding Maya.

Parloka Vidya in the Upanishads- The Knowledge About the other World in the Upanishads:

                      Where does man go after death? After death the relationship between the Jeeva (being) and the world comes to an end and he becomes a citizen of the other world (Parloka). After death three positions of an individual has been accepted-Devayan, Pitriyan and Tritiya. These three positions are related with the future life of man.

                     In these three positions we find answers to the following questions. Where does man go after death? Where does he reside? How does he come again in the world?

                      Devayan: Those who practise Adhyatma Vidya (Spiritual Knowledge) ultimately reach the Brahmalok after having entered into the funeral fire on death. Jeeva (the being) resides in the Brahmalok until he realises the truth of the Nirguna Brahma. This person does not descend on earth (Mrityalok). But when Brahma is born again then this person takes birth on earth. This process continues till Moksha is attained. After Moksha the cycle of birth and death ends.

                     Pitriyan: Those who perform Yogya, gives charity and worship and pray, they enter fire after death. After going through various processes they ultimately reach the Pitriloka. From Pitriloka they come to Chandraloka where they become grains. God eats these grains. They remain in the Chandraloka until their piety (Punya) is not exhausted. When the piety is finished they are born again on earth accordin to their previous good or bad deeds.

                     Trittiya Gati (The third position): This Trittiya Gati is meant for lower animals, birds and insects etc. These creatures continue to die and take birth. This process is never broken.

                     The above three positions have reference to future life after death. It is true that the cycle of birth and death continue till Moksha (Salvation) is attained. Through spiritual knowledge one may attain duties without any attachment for the outcome. Those who work with attachment may enjoy heavenly pleasure according to the noble nature of their deeds but their cycle of birth and death will never end.

The Nature of Education during the Upanishadic or Vedantic period and the implications of the same for today:

                      According to the Upanishadic philosophy the following were accepted as the principal aims of education for the students in the Gurukul:

                        1.  Acquisition of the supreme knowledge

                      2.  Physical Development

                      3.  Character Building

                    4.  Complete Development

                     5.  Individual and Social Development

                    6.  Spiritual Development

                    7.  Education for Culture

                      1.  The Aim of Acquisition of the supreme knowledge: This amounted to acquiring that knowledge which could help one to froget worldly pleasures and understand the Brahma (God), in other words, to attain immortality. This kind of knowledge was considered above everything else. It was todifferent from virtue, vice, cause and effect and the past and the present.

                    2.  The Physical Development Aim: For achieving this goal the student had to live in the Gurukul an austere life. This period was the first order (Praitham Ashram) of life, that is the Brahmacharya (the life of celibacy). A healthy student alone could lead this type of life. Hence the emphasis on physical development. The student had to observe strict disciplinary rules in the Gurukul. For developing a healthy body he was required to perform Pranayam in the morning, noon and evening. Though recitation of the Vedic texts he used to take stenous vocal exercises. Besides, he had to perform prayers for obtaining vigour and strength. He had to do many things in the Gurukul, such as to beg alms, to gather full-sticks and tend the sacred fire. All these required enough physical labour.

                      3.  The Character Development Aim: training of the will power was considered necessary for character development. Towards this end the student was required to think of only good things. He had to observe various rules of moralities. He had to study Vedas and the other supplementary texts daily. The Upanishad warns a students to shun bad conduct if he wants to develop his character.

                    4.  The Complete Development Aim: The complete development aim amounted to controlling of senses and practising introversion. This was considered as the ideal method for complete living which meant all-sided development. The various duties to be performed daily in the Gurukul had to lead to the realisation of the goal of all-sided development.

                    5.  The Individual and the Social Aim: The daily disciplinary life in the Gurukul meant to develop in the students many individual and social virtues. A student was required to be truthful all his life. With the development of the body, mind and heart the student was trained to develop some such virtues which could make him a socially efficient individual. He was required to be free from deceit, diplomacy, pride and falsehood. He had to believe in giving charities.

                    6.  The Spiritual Development Aim: The performance of Yogas (Yajnas) was considered above everything else. The various Upanishads have explained the qualifications that were considered necessary for spiritual development. The Kathopanishad has introduced the term ‘introversion’ as the best method for spiritual development. This meant that a student had to look entirely within himself upto the external world and was advised to look entirely within himself.

                     7.  Education forCulture: During the Upanishadic days hospitality was considered as a compulsory social obligation and it was raised to the position of a religious duty also. To offer food to a passer by or to a guest was regarded as equivalent to a sacrifice. The principle of truth was honoured as the highest virtue. The habit of cleanliness was considered as a trait worthy of cultivation by all. During the Upanishadic age the preservation and development of culture of the race was given the highest importance in education.

Subjects of Study

                    In various Upanishads we find clear references to a number of subjects which were taught to the students. The students were required to study two types of the Vidyas viz the Paravidya and Aparavidya. The Paravidya was considered supreme knowledge which pertained to study the relationship between man (Jeeva), world (Jagat) and God(Paramatma). In other words an atteempt was made to know the ultimate reality. The Aparavidya consisted of the four Vedas and six Vedemgas subjects of phonetics, knowledge of rituals, grammar, astronomy, exegetivs and matrices, Itihas, Puranas, ethics, military science etc.

The Preceptor (The Guru or the Teacher)

                     The Upanishads have repeteadly asserted the superiority of the preceptor (the Guru). The preceptor was said to be wonderful as he was the propounder of the Brahmavidya. The student was also regarded as wonderful as he received that knowledge and wonderful was he who comprehended Him, when taught by an able teache. Rarely did a pupil understand that ‘self’ merely by hearing to many. The teacher was considered to be enlightened so he alone was capable of teaching the pupil about the Supreme Wonder of Wonders. Such was the ideal concept of a teacher. In the Upanishadic era. In the Upanishads it has been said that the preceptor belonged to the family of Vedic teachers who were richly equipped with highest experiences. The preceptor used to show fatherly affection to his pupils. A preceptor was famous for the for the virtues of humility and truthfulness. He was all the time ready to answer any question put by his disciple. He was always inclined to seek the ultimate truth. The preceptor’s plain living, high thinking, disciplined routine, abstinence from pleasures, mental control and above all his sincerity of purpose were the principal factors in the success of his work.

The Students and His Discipline:

                     A Brahmachari or a student had to go about begging alms for his Guru. He was to tend the sacred fire of the Guru. He was to tend the house of the Guru. He had to guard his Guru¸his house and the cattle. In the Chhandogya Upanishad it is thus stated – “Satya Van was sent away with his teacher’s cattle into a distant country where he remained for a series of years during which 400 cows became a thousand. The student used to study Vedas daily after he did the duties belonging to the teacher’s house-hold. The student was expected to serve his Guru with his mind, word and deed (Manas, Vacha. Karmana). He was just like a member of the Guru’s family.

                      The student was under the direct observation of his teacher all the twenty-four hours. The student received both mind-making and man-making education in the house of the Guru. The Upanishads propounded the spiritual discilines, viz. conservation of strength, absence of delusion and knowledge combined with monstricism were to be practised by the student during the studentship, the seeker of the truth had to strengthen himself physically and spiritually. Only then he could receive instruction from his Guru. The student had to live as a Brahmachari as long as he was in the Gurukul. He was expected to be claim in mind, self-restrained, self-denying and patient. In this way the student had to pass through severe discipline in the Gurukul.

The Student-Teacher Relationship

                     The Guru and his wife had to perform respectively the role of the father andthat of the mother for the disciple accepted in the Gurukul. The pupil accepted the teacher as his father and mother as well and he never dared to oppose him in any way. The Manusmriti explains this relationship thus in a clean manner. “A Dwija is born twice: first after his mother’s conception and secondly at the time of his initiation ceremony when he is made fit to acquire the knowldege of the Brahma’.

                      The Guru also performed his duty honestly. He taught his student the truth exactly as he knew it. He never concealed anything from his disciple. The disciple also did not conceal his weakness from his Guru. The Guru says, “I do not know Him, if I know Him, why shouldn’t I tell you? Surely, he who speaks what is untrue withers away to the very root, therefore, I will not say what is untrue. In the Chhandogya Upanishad it has been said that the knowledge of the Brahmavidya was to be imparted to the Guru’s son or to a pupil. But no one should tell it to anybody else”.

Methods of Study

                     During the Upanishadic age, the Guru imparted the instructions orally to his disciples. The students were trained to listen to the Guru’s word attentively. Both the Guru and the pupils used to become very active in the process of teaching and learning. While imparting knowledge of the self, Yajnavalkya speaks thus to his wife Maitreyi. Verily, the self is to be seen, heard, perceived to be marked. When the self has been seen, heard, perceived an known, then all this is known. The first stage of the study was listening. The second was Abhyas i.e. practice or the recitation of the text taught. The third stage was immediate apprehension of the meaning. The fourth stage was that of Phalawhich means comprehension of results. The fifth sate was Arthavada, which stands for the study of explanatory texts and the Brahmana texts. The sixth was Upapatti or attainmentof conclusions. Thus these were the six principal stages of the method of study. The Guru used to tell stories, parables and apt illustrations forhelping to comprehend students to comprehend the matter. At times discourses and disputation (Sastrartha) were also organised for the benefit of the pupils.

Examination

                     The Guru never arranged examinations for his pupils. He used to pay individual attention to each Student. However, this does not mean that the pupil’s performance were not assessed. While the pupil was performing his various duties in the Gurukul the Guru used to supervise all his activities. Thus his performance was being assessed everyday. The Guru used to be very fair in his assessment. He never showed any favour to any particular student. If the Guru declared any pupil fit, the latter could again come to him for further instruction whenever he desired. Indira took a certain problem for investigation for which he had to stay for 101 years with his Guru. It was after 101 years that Indra was declered successful.

Farewell Address

                     On completion of his education the student used to take his last bath in the Gurukul. After his bath the student was finally addressed by the Guru thus:

“Speak the truth. Do your duty. Do not neglect the study of Vedas. Do not neglect greatness. Do not neglect the sacrificial works due to gods and fathers. Let your mother be to you like into a God. Let your father be to you like into a God. Let your Guru be to like into a God, let your guest be to you like into a God.

                     Whatever actions are blameless, those should be followed, not others….. what is given should be given with faith, not without faith-with joy, with modesty, with fear and with kindness….. and soon….”

Implications of the Upanishadic Era for Modern Education

The Ideal of Development of the Whole Man: We have seen in the forgoing pages that the educational system during the Upanishadic period stood for an all-sided development of the pupil in such a way that he realised himself as a full man and ultimately attained immorality. Educationists like Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindranath Tgaore, Swami Vivekananda and many others in our country have also emphasized the ideal of the development of the whole man. But the words of our wise man have not made any impact on our modern educational system. With the result that today we happen to see many stunted specimens of humanity in the forms of graduates of our colleges and universities. These specimens do not know how to make a decent living. A depondency is writ large over their faces. Hence all of us should take a lesson from the Upanishadic  age and strive to develop the whole personality of our students in general.

The Ideal of Good Moral Character:

                      An ideal man does not live for himself alone. In fact, he lives for others as well. In essence all his activities are directed towards social good. The aim of education during the Upanishadic age was also to enable the pupil to develop humself in such a manner that he might contribute to the development of society. The third and fourth order of life, i.e., the Vanprastha and Sanyas meant only to stimulate the individual to shun his personal desires and work for the social good. Even the order Ashram of Sanyas- the life of a recluse meant to realise the ultimate spirituality with a view to guide others towards the same goal. Thus we find the practice of highest moral ideal during the Upanishadic period. Today many of our youths happen to be so misguided as to work as social miscreants disturbing the peace of our society. So we must incorporate in our modern educational system the ideal of high moral character.

The Concepts or the Ideal Teacher and the Ideal Student:

                       We have seen in the foregoing pages that the Upanishadic Gurus assumed the roles of ideal teachers and they derived spiritual pleasures in helping their pupils to understand the truth of human existence. So in the Upanishadic age the pupils presented themselves before/their Guru as real seekers of truth. In our modern educational system we have to incorporate the concept of the ideal teacher and the ideal pupil. Only then our Bharat will be Mahan (great as sometimes we speak today about our sublime goal in the interest of our country).

The High Ideas or the Upanishadic Gurus to be Achieved:

                      Our modern trainig colleges preparing-teachers for schools profess to develop in the trainees the ideals which were actually praised by the Upanishadic preceptors. But so far they have not succeeded in the professed ideals. Many of the educational departments of the various universities in our country have fallen short of everything that are desirable for an ideal teacher. Man of these educational departments are now also producing B.Eds. either through correspondence course or through summer courses in addition to their regular B.Ed. courses. The main purpose of these B.Ed., summer and Correspondence courses appear to mint money. So much so that many of the invitee-lectures in these courses have adopted the slogan Paisa PeetoB.Ed. Banao, i.e. make money and produce B.Eds. Such is the pitiable position of our centres which are supposed to prepare ideal teachers. Even the B.Eds. from regular courses are not getting jobs corresponding to their technical qualifications. Many of them working as clerks in many offices. Then what has been the necessity of starting B.Ed. through summer and correspondence courses, except that of making money? Due to such a deplorable tendency we have to forget the high ideals that a teacher must profess and practise. It is high time that we revert back to the great ideals of our ancient preceptors of the Gurukul system and produce ideal teachers.

College and Universities Hostels to be Re-patterned to the Great Upanishadic Ideals of a Gurukula

                      During the Upanishadic period the house of the preceptor (the Guru or the Acharya) used to function as a residentisl university for pupils who were there for seeking the Para or Aparavidya. The entire routine of a Gurukul was laid under the strict supervision of the preceptor and the pupil continued his study there for a period of 12 or 32 years in certain cases. The modern colleges and universities having hostel facilities seldom do any good to the students. So much so that many of the hostels are now no more centres of miscreants and police forces are used to either control them or to evict them out. Evidently, hostels are now no more centres of learning. In order to make them ideal residential centres for our students we should look towards the great grand traditions of the Gurukulds of the Upanishadic age and remodel them on the same pattern under the strict supervision of some really good teachers.

The Upanishadic Ideals for Modern Students

                      The pupils during the Upanishadic age were admitted to a Gurukul of the preceptor’s Ashram after his deservingness was fully tested by the preceptor. Hence the pupils in those days were really truth seekers. Today many students join college and university in order to became film-stars. Very often they are seen wasting their time in love-making or other vulgar activities in place of their stuies. Students, today come to colleges and universities to learn new fashions. Our students may be saved from these undesirable things if we assimilate the ideals and principles followed by the Upanishadic  preceptors. Then the problem of indiscipline which is eating away the very vitality of our educational centres will be automatically wiped off.

Summary:

                      Upanishadic sources of all Indian philosophies. It means knowledge and for salvation knowledge about self is necessary. Brahma is the supreme truth. Soul is unmental. Education should aim at acquisition of supreme knowledge and complete development. Preceptor richly equipped with highest experience and the student was always under his observation. In modern education, the concept of the ideal teacher and the ideal student to be incorporated. The student should learn the Upanishadic ideals to build the highest form of moral character for the social good.