WRITING
SKILL
Language is primarily a means of communication. The pupils should be
taught how to use the language first in speech and then in writing. In the
words of Francis Bacon, the renowned
English essayist, “Reading makes a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man”. Out of the four
skills of language learning, writing,
perhaps, is the most important skill or to put it exactly was the most important skill for we were able to communicate with
those who were away from us only through writing. Of course, in the modern
times, technological innovations made it possible for us to communicate with
the people at a distance through speech too. However, language learning remains
incomplete without the writing skill.
MECHANICS OF WRITING
·
Writing begins with strokes leading to
letters like III, III, III, V, W, K, I etc.
·
Letters formed on circle ‘O’ like c,e
·
Circles and Strokes ‘c’, ‘l’, leading to
letters like d, b, p, q.
·
Stroke and curves – h, n, r, u, f, m.
High
school students need to master before moving on to paragraph and then essays,
including:
·
Correctly identifying the parts of a
sentence
·
Understanding complex sentences
·
Learning subject-verb agreement
·
Differentiating between plural and
possessive nouns
·
Using pronouns, adjectives and adverbs
in sentences
·
Identifying and spelling words that
often confuse writers
·
Correctly using commas, semicolons and
other punctuation
·
Proofreading their writing for errors.
The teacher is to follow the following certain
important points for practicing neat, legible and good handwriting.
·
Stroke with proper hand movement.
·
Right and distinct shapes of letters.
·
Letters of the right side.
·
Uniformity in size, spacing and
alignment.
·
Capital letters at the right places.
·
Punctuation marks appropriately.
·
Easy and fluent hand movement from left
to right.
TYPES OF WRITING
The different types of writing may be broadly
divided into two major categories namely.
1.
Conventional
Type
2.
Non-conventional
Type
CONVENTIONAL TYPE OF WRITING
Under Conventional Type of writing come the
following categories:
a)
Paragraph
Writing
b)
Essay
Writing
c)
Letter
Writing
d)
Composition
Writing
e)
Report
Writing etc.
a)
Paragraph Writing
“A paragraph is a
section of a piece of writing usually consisting of several sentences dealing
with a single subject”. A paragraph deals with a single theme and forms a part
of any connected and continuous piece of writing like an essay, a letter, a
story etc. in short, a paragraph is a convenient unit of written expression. It
is desirable to have short paragraphs, not too lengthy paragraphs. Whereas it
is easy to read and comprehend short paragraphs, the reader’s attention is flagged
off if he has to read lengthy paragraphs. It becomes difficult for the reader
to concentrate on the theme of the paragraph if it is too lengthy. A
well-written paragraph varies from two to ten sentences.
b)
Essay Writing
“An essay is a short piece of
writing on a particular subject”. The essay is usually divided into three parts
viz., the Introductory Part, The Content Part and the Conclusion Part. The
paragraph that introduces the topic of the essay constitutes the introductory
part, the paragraphs that deal with the theme of the essay or develop the body
of the essay constitute the content part and the paragraph that is written by
way of concluding the essay constitutes the conclusion part.
The introduction should reveal
the attitude of the writer on the subject. The introduction should be emphatic
in order to arouse the interest of the readers. Hence introduction should be as
attractive as possible. It is good if the introduction opens with a proverb, a
quotation, a definition or an anecdote.
The body of the essay (content part) is divided into several paragraphs
known as supporting paragraphs. As the name itself suggests they support the
main theme of the essay.
The concluding paragraph
gives a summary or gist of what has been discussed in the body of the essay and
concludes the essay in an impressive manner.
c)
Letter Writing
A letter is a
traditional and one of the best means of written communication. It is directly
addressed to an individual, an office, an institution or an organization. It is
kept in an envelope and is convenient form of transfer of information. A letter
is different from other forms of communication due to its structure or form
which is established by convention and practice.
Structure
of a Letter
There are different kinds of letters such as personal letters, official
letters etc. Each kind of letter has its own form or structure. However there
are certain forms of similarity which apply to all sorts of letters. They are,
i.
The
Heading consisting of
a.
The
writer’s address and
b.
The
date
ii.
The
Salutation or courteous Greeting
iii.
The
Communication or Message – the body of the letter
iv.
The
Subscription or Conclusion or courteous Leave-taking
v.
The
signature
vi.
The
superscription – address on the envelope
i.
The
Heading
This informs the reader from which place the letter has come and when
was it written. The heading should be written on the right side corner of the
page – first the address and the date just below the address.
ii.
The
Salutation or Greeting
The salutation should be written below the heading beginning from the
left hand side of the page and should be followed by a comma (,). The form of
salutation will be in a accordance with the type of letter written. In personal
letters it depends on the degree of intimacy one has with the person addressed.
Different
kinds of Salutation in Personal Letters
a)
To members of one’s own family
My dear father, My dear mother, My
dear brother, My dear sister etc.
My
dear is more intimate and affectionate than Dear.
While addressing uncles, aunts and
cousins one can use either My dear
or Dear as one likes.
b)
To friends
Dear
Mr. Anil (not very intimate)
Dear
Anil (more intimate)
My
dear Anil (very intimate and affectionate)
c)
To strangers
Dear
Sir
(for men) and Dear Madam (for women)
d)
To teachers and official superiors
Dear
Sir or simply Sir
iii.
The
Communication or Body of the Letter
This is the main part of the letter.
It should be written in a simple, natural style. Though a formal style is used
in official letters, a familiar colloquial style may be used in personal
letters. If the letter is long it should be divided into paragraphs.
iv.
The
Subscription or Courteous Leave-taking
A letter must not end abruptly, simply with the writer’s name. this
would look rude. So different leave-taking forms are used in different kinds of
letters.
a)
Your loving son, Yours lovingly, Your
affectionate sister (To parents and
siblings)
b)
Yours very sincerely, Sincerely your,
Yours affectionately (To relations)
c)
Yours faithfully, Yours truly (In official letters)
d)
Yours obediently (To teachers and official superiors)
The first word of the subscription must begin with a capital letter. The
subscription or leave-taking phrase must be written below the last words of the
letter and to the right side of the page.
v.
The
Signature
The signature must come
below the subscription. A lady should prefix to the name Smt. Or Kumari in
brackets as (Smt.) B. Padmavathy
vi.
The
Superscription or Address on the Envelope
The address should be written very clearly on the envelope. If not the
messenger (postman) may not deliver the letter to the right addressee if he
cannot identify the address properly.
Classification
of Letters
Letters are broadly classified into two categories. They are Social Letters Business and Letters. Social letters include Personal or Friendly letters and Notes of Invitations. Business letters,
on the other hand, include Official
letters, Letters of Application and Letters
to Newspapers. Each kind of letter has characteristics of its own which
have to be considered separately.
I.
Social Letters
i.
Personal
Letters
Letters
written to relations and intimate friends are known as personal letters. They
should be written in an easy, intimate, familiar and conversational style, of
course, depending on the degree of intimacy one has with the person addressed.
The sentences in a personal letter should , as a rule, short and simple. They
should be loosely connected rather than formal and elaborate. Conversational
idioms and colloquial expressions may be used. The personal letter should
display the personality of the writer. It should be like a friendly,
heart-to-heart talk and the reader, as it were, her the voice of the writer as
he goes through the letter.
The personal letter, however, should not be self-absorbed. The writer
should devote some space to things of common interest and about people in whom
both the writer and the receiver are interested. One of the chief aims of writing
a personal letter should be to give pleasure to the person to whom it is
addressed.
ii.
Notes
of Invitations
The notes of invitation are always written in the third person. The
writer’s address is not given at the beginning but at the end. There should be
no salutation, no leave-taking or signature. Look at the following example.
Formal
Note of Invitation
Dr.
and Mrs. Jacob Kurian request the pleasure of the company of Mr. and Mrs.
Akella Subba Rao at dinner on Friday, the 25th of December at 8:00
P.M. on the eve of Christmas.
21, First Cross Road,
Malleswaram, Bangalore,
21st December, 2009.
II.
Business
Letters
i.
Official
Letters
Business letters should be brief, clear and to the point. They are, as
the name itself suggests, are much more formal in style than personal letters.
Certain forms of polite expressions are used, such as
“I shall be much obliged if you
send me”,
“Please dispatch at your earliest
convenience”, etc.
ii.
Letters
to Newspapers
These letters should always be addressed to the The Editor, and they usually end with yours truly.
The proper form of salutation is Sir, and not Dear Sir
If the writer gives his address for publication, it is usually placed
below the letter and to the left of the signature.
a)
Composition Writing
The word composition comes from the word compose which means to put together or to arrange in order. Thus putting together words or phrases or
sentences is known as composing. At the early stage the child who puts together
words in phrases like on the table, in
the school, at the bus stop etc. is constructing a good piece of
composition. Composition, thus has a wide range of meaning. In the words of Chapman, “Almost any written exercise
is, in fact, composition. When a pupil is asked to supply a missing word he is
completing the composition of a sentence; when he is asked to change a
statement into a question, he is composing a new sentence. Composition, in the
usual sense of the word, is therefore only a connected form of written
exercise”. In general composition can be defined as a collection of sentences spun around an idea.
Types
and Teaching of Composition
Composition can be broadly divided into two kinds
namely,
1.
Oral
Composition
2.
Written
Composition
1.
Oral
Composition
Composition
is too often thought of as something written. It is sometimes ignored that
there is such a thing as Oral Composition. The predominance of written work is
probably due to the belief that in learning a foreign language it is easier to
write than to speak. In writing there will be time to correct one’s mistakes
whereas in speech errors can be detected as soon as the sentence is uttered.
But this is a mistaken idea. Actually the contrary is true. As we speak, so shall we write. A
person who is proficient in speech will naturally write better.
Need
for Oral Composition
There is a great need for oral
composition both as an individual activity and as preparation to written
composition. There are two important factors which necessitate oral
composition. They are:-
1.
To train and enable pupils to express
their ideas and feelings as clearly and correctly as they would do in their
mother tongue.
2.
To enable pupils acquire practice in
using the language they have already learnt so as to make them feel thoroughly
confident in using it.
Importance
of Oral Composition
In teaching composition a
beginning should be made with oral composition is well underway. At the initial
stage oral composition is natural and proper and preliminary to written
composition. Even at the later stages the importance of oral composition should
not be undermined for speech, not writing, is the essential part of language.
When the classes are over-crowded no teacher will have enough time and
energy for the careful correction of written composition. Even the painstaking
and conscientious teacher finds it difficult to devote adequate individual
attention to the pupils. And when there is much time gap between the writing of
the composition and its correction the written composition becomes less
effective. In oral composition, on the contrary, the iron is struck at while it is still hot. Moreover a large
volume of work can be done this way and the freedom, spontaneity and
naturalness developed in connection with speech are reflected in written work.
Uses
of Oral Composition
1.
Oral composition fosters confidence
among the pupils regarding their expressive abilities.
2.
It teaches good spoken English.
3.
It trains pupils to think clearly and
precisely.
4.
It develops the imagination of the
pupils.
2.
Written
Composition
a) Guided
Composition
It is called Guided Composition for it is the type of composition
wherein the pupils will have guidance of ideas, vocabulary, structures etc.
from the teacher. The learners have to work according to the suggestions given
by the teacher. Oral practice is given first and then they are asked to write
the composition. This type of composition takes care of the fact that too many
difficulties are not presented at a time.
Principles
of Guided Composition:
1.
The topic for composition should be
carefully selected. It should be in accordance with the mental level of the
pupils.
2.
It should be of interest to the pupils.
3.
Various details of the topic on hand
should be given to the pupils so that they may become completely familiar with
the topic.
4.
The teacher should prepare a guideline
according to which the pupils proceed without facing any problem.
5.
Vocabulary, structures etc. are to be
suggested by the teacher himself/herself. The pupils should use them in the way
required by the teacher.
6.
Oral work should precede written work at
every stage.
7.
There should be very few chances of
errors by the pupils.
Teaching
Guided Composition
Guided Composition can be taught by giving a number of exercises to the
pupils. The following are some such exercises:
a)
Transformation
of Sentences:
i.
She is feeding her pups. (Change the
gender)
He is feeding his pups.
ii.
A bird lives on a tree. (Change the
number)
Birds live on trees.
iii.
Sita sings sweetly. (Change into past
tense)
Sita sang sweetly.
iv.
He is too weak to walk. (Remove ‘too’)
He is so weak that he cannot walk.
v.
Ravi is reading. (Change into a
question)
Is Ravi reading?
vi.
Raju kicked the dog. (Change the voice)
The dog was kicked by Raju.
b)
Completion
of Incomplete Sentences
i.
If I go to Agra – (I shall see the Taj
Mahal.)
ii.
Wait here – (till I come back.)
c)
Pairing
of Sentences
A B
i.
I sold the cow which he bought
yesterday.
ii.
Hari gave me the pen who was
dying.
iii.
We saw an old man that was black in colour.
Advantages
of Guided Composition:
1.
The exercises given under Guided
Composition pave the way for writing Free Composition.
2.
Errors of the pupils can be minimized
through these exercises and correction work.
3.
Mere copying can be discouraged with the
help of these exercises.
4.
Grammar takes on the functional aspect.
It is taught incidentally through these exercises.
5.
Composition work becomes an interesting
process. Pupils do not feel difficulty while going through the various exercises.
b)
Controlled Composition
In writing this short of composition a very controlled situation is
presented to the pupils. That is why this sort of composition is called as Controlled Composition. The pupils have
to say strictly accordance with the situation and they have to use only the
vocabulary and structures suggested by the teacher. They are not supposed to
say or write anything by using any type of vocabulary or structures. This type
of composition takes care of the fact that too many difficulties are not
presented at a time.
The pupils are made to write the composition by constructing the
sentences or by drawing the information from a number of exercises. Adequate
practice in doing these exercises enables the pupils to have a good command
over the structure s and vocabulary. This practice enables them write Free Composition. The following are a
few such exercises.
a)
Substitution
Table
A number of substitution tables should be provided by the teacher and
the pupils should be taught how to consult them.
This
That
It
|
is
|
a
|
Pen
Book
Pencil
|
it is
|
my
your
his
|
Pen
Book
Pencil
|
It
is
|
on
|
the
this
that
|
Mat
Box
Table
|
From the above substitution tables simple sentences leading to various
small pieces of composition can be constructed. A few examples are given
hereunder:
1.
This is a pen. It is my pen. It is on
the table.
2.
That is a pencil. It is your pencil. It
is on the box.
3.
It is a book. It is his book. It is on
the mat. Etc.
b)
Controlled
Paragraph Writing
This is developing the items in the various substitution tables into a
paragraph as per the guidelines given by the teacher. The pupils are asked to
choose words from a given list and insert them in a given paragraph.
c)
Transcription
The pupils may be asked to transcribe something from the chalkboard or
from the books. In doing so the teacher should draw their attention to good
handwriting, beauty of style, spelling, sentence patterns etc.
d)
Reproduction
Exercises
Reproduction exercises
make advancement over substitution tables. Here the pupils are required to make
sentences from a given outline of key words. The following are some such
exercises:
1.
Building
a Situation
The
teacher asks a pupil to hold a pen in his hand and go to the door. Then he
says:
That is a boy. His name
is Kiran. He went to the door. He has a pen in his hand.
The pupils repeat these
sentences after the teacher. Then they are repeated by the pupils on their own.
Next, only one variation is introduced and the pupils are asked to describe the
situation. Kiran may be changed to Keerthana, pen may be changed to book, and door may be
changed to window.
2.
Speaking
from Key Words
The teacher may write some key words on the
chalkboard and instruct the pupils to frame sentences using those key words.
That boy
Name Kiran
Going door
These words may be used in order to construct sentences in the following
manner:
That is a boy. His name is Kiran. He is going to the
door.
3.
Reproducing
Picture Description
A wall picture depicting
many scenes may be shown to the pupils. The teacher should describe the various
scenes orally. Then the picture is removed. The teacher should write the key
words on the chalkboard. The pupils are encouraged to develop from the key
words the entire description.
4.
Repeating
the Answers
The teacher writes a topic
on the chalkboard. Then he puts questions on the topic. Answers are orally
elicited from the pupils. Later on the pupils are required to reproduce the
answers with the help of the keywords written on the chalkboard by the teacher.
5.
Reproducing
a Story
The teacher narrates a story
orally. Then the keywords of the story are written on the chalkboard. While
writing the key words, the teacher can once again narrate the story. Looking at
the key words written on the chalkboard the pupils are to reproduce the story.
Merits
of Controlled Composition
1.
In controlled composition work there is
very little scope for pupils to commit mistakes while writing the composition
for everything is controlled by the teacher.
2.
As children often repeat the sentence
said by the teacher they will have a lot of exercise both oral and written
which is essential for learning a foreign language like English correctly.
3.
Some expressions and language structures
become automatic with the pupils. They enjoy repeating them for their sheer
beauty and attraction.
c)
Free Composition
Whereas in Guided Composition and Incontrolled Composition the pupils
are given specific type of guidance, in Free Composition they are provided with
general type of guidance. Here the pupils are free to write anything on the
topic of their interest. Keeping in view the interests of the learners, the
teacher gives some topic and asks the pupils to write on it. This way he
develops among his pupils the habit of fine writing step by step. The following
exercises prove useful for the purpose:
i.
Paragraph
Writing
In the beginning the pupils should be made to write very short
paragraphs. These may be based on the exercises practiced in Guided and
Controlled Compositions. Hints may be provided to the pupils in the beginning.
At the early stages very simple topics like My School, Our Neighbourhood, The Games We Play, The Festivals We
Celebrate may be taken up.
In the later stages the paragraphs can be enlarged by putting
appropriate questions. At the same time pupils can be encouraged to write
paragraphs on various topics such as A
Picnic Party, A Railway Journey, Good Manners, Value of Books and the like.
ii.
Essay
Writing
The small paragraphs written in different times on a single topic, when
connected may constitute an essay. This exercise is for the higher stage of
composition writing. The pupils may be asked to develop essays on various
topics of daily life like The Happiest
Day in My Life, The Indian Farmer etc.
iii.
Letter
Writing
Letter writing is
another important exercise of Free Composition. There is need for writing a
letter, personal of official or business, in the life of every individual. The
pupils can learn letter writing if they are given enough practice in writing
about day-to-day life situations. The teacher should act as a guide and enable
the pupils learn ths structure and the different parts of letter writing.
iv.
Creative
Writing
All types of writing ultimately should lead to creative writing. Guided
Composition and Controlled Composition enable one to write Free Composition and
this in turn leads to creative writing. A person is able to write short
stories, dialogues, reviews etc. a story may be developed with the help of a picture.
The teacher narrates the story keeping the picture before the pupils. Then the picture is removed and
the pupils develop and write the story from their memory.
Correction
of Composition Work
English, being foreign language, needs regular checking, testing and
re-teaching. Only then the pupils will be able to learn English effectively. In
composition work or any other type of written work, correction work is of
primary importance and it should be properly done by the teacher.
How
to Ensure Efficiency in Correction Work?
The main purpose of correction work is to ensure progress. And progress
should be brought about slowly and steadily. The following points may be kept
in mind by the teacher for ensuring efficiency in correction work:
1.
While doing correction work over
correction may be avoided. What the pupils want to express should not be
replaced by what the teacher wants them to express. The objective of
composition teaching is to extend an opportunity to the pupils for
self-expression. Over correction discourages them and inhibits facility and
speed.
2.
The pupils must be enabled, as far as
possible, to correct their mistakes themselves. This may be done by using a few
symbols which indicate the nature of errors committed. This reduces the burden
of the teacher to some extent. It also promotes individual effort and puts
pupils on the right track. Of course, the various correction symbols which are
as follows, should be made familiar to the pupils in advance.
S – Spelling mistake O - Omit
A – Omission Z -
Irrelevant
E – Bad English ? – Truth of
the statement questioned
G – Grammatically
incorrect ! - Exaggeration
P – Punctuation wrong
3.
The teacher should make a note of the
general mistakes and discuss them in the class using the chalkboard. This saves
much time and labour on the part of the teacher.
4.
Follow up work is very important in
correction work. The teacher must ensure whether the pupils have made some
progress or not. Omission of follow up work renders the work of the teacher
useless.
e. Report Writing
Report Writing is a
first-hand account of what has been seen, heard, studied or done. Several kinds
of reports are frequently published in newspapers and journals. They include investigation Reports, Medical Reports,
Committee Reports, Business Reports, Scientific Reports, Reports on Sports and
Games and the like.
The report should be
always brief and precise.
It should be based on
first-hand knowledge and should include only relevant facts and details.
It should be clear and
accurate to the point.
The ideas should be
sequentially and logically arranged in a report.
NON-CONVENTIONAL TYPE OF WRITING
Under non-conventional
type of writing come the following kinds:
a)
Diary
Writing
b)
Dialogue
Writing
c)
Filling
in Forms
d)
Information
transfer etc.
a)
Diary
Writing
A
diary is a personal possession. In the diary the individual writes his/her own
experiences, thoughts, feelings, desires or events worth nothing. One follows
one’s own convenience in nothing down in a diary. It need not be noted down in
the form of complete sentences and need not be expressed in the correct in the
correct grammatical style of language even. It may be written in words,
abbreviations, short sentences or in code language without any continuity.
Diary writing is a good
habit. Officers and professional make a note of their daily work schedule and
engagements in the diaries.
b)
Dialogue
Writing
Literally Dialogue means
“Talk between two persons”. Dialogue writing is a useful piece of composition.
Given proper guidance it should lead one to the colloquial way of talking
English and train one to express oneself in an easy and natural way. The spoken
English of an average Indian school pupil is rather affected and bookish. And
anything that will help him acquire naturalness and ease in speaking English is
of much value. Dialogue writing paves the way towards this end.
Dialogue writing is not
anybody’s piece of cake. It needs any amount of practice and imagination on the
part of the writer. He has to keep inside himself, so to say, two imaginary
persons so as to make them expires their
opinions or arguments in a natural way. In other words, he has to be each one
and has to see the views of each one.
Careful preparation is
necessary for writing a dialogue. A dialogue should be composed in such a way that it appears
spontaneous, in many cases, it is not. In fact it is premeditated. But the
writer of the dialogue must have the art of concealing his art. It is always
advisable to have a plan or outline of the dialogue before it is executed.
Procedure
for Dialogue Writing
1.
Ponder over the subject selected or
given and note down briefly the opinions or arguments supposed to be expressed
by the imaginary persons.
2.
Arrange the ideas, thus collected, in a
logical order so that one will arise from another naturally in the course of
the conversation.
3.
The dialogue, on completion, should read
like a real, spontaneous conversation. In order to achieve this end, make the
imaginary characters talk in an easy, natural and familiar manner.
Points
to Remember
1.
Any one of the characters, however
important it is, should not be allowed to monopolize the conversation, as if he
were giving a public lecture. All the characters should be given a fair chance
and the ball should be kept rolling. The conversation should be brisk and
rapid.
2.
In order to arrest the reader’s
attention from the very beginning, the dialogue should commence in an
interesting manner. The conversation should lead up to some definite
conclusion. It should not end abruptly. Special attention should be paid to the
beginning and the closing of the dialogue.
3.
The whole dialogue should be written, as
far as possible, in ungrammatical. Through the characters in the dialogue use
the language freely and easily, they should talk only good English.
4.
Above all the dialogue should be written
in a natural, realistic and interesting
manner. The conversation should be brief and the questions and replies
as concise and pointed as possible.
c)
Filling
in Forms
Now-a-days, due to
mechanization, we don’t need to write much but we have to fill in forms of
different kinds like bio data forms, admission and employment application
forms, government challan forms, bank draft forms, loan application forms, life
insurance policy forms, money order forms, telegram forms, railway reservation
forms and the like. These forms test the comprehension as well as the writing
skill of the individuals. Proper understanding of the requirements is necessary
if these forms have to be filled in correctly. Any mistake committed, the form
is liable to be rejected. Filling in these different forms requires both
command over vocabulary and appropriateness in its use.
Instructing the children
as to how to fill in these different forms right from the school stage should
become a necessary part of our education, and especially English language
teaching. Language should be useful in life and for life.
d)
Information
Transfer
What
is Information Transfer?
Communication is possible
through two media, verbal and non-verbal. While verbal communication
makes use of languages non-verbal communication makes use of signs, symbols,
pictures and diagrams.
Non-verbal mode of
communication is more attractive and effective because it is mostly in the form
of diagrams and pictures. Tables, charts, maps and graphs contain a lot of
information in them in a minute form and we can understand and interpret them
easily and quickly. The entire information contained in the non-verbal mode can
be understood in a glance. The most popular non-verbal means of information
transfer are Tables, Flowcharts, Pie
Diagrams, Tree Diagrams and Bar Graphs.
1.
Transferring
Information from a Table
The usual procedure is gathering information by reading a text. But
sometimes we may have to interpret information from a given table. Given below
is a table showing the number of injured persons saved by 108 medical services
in Tirupati city from road accidents during the twelve months of the year 2008.
Month No. of persons saved Month No. of persons saved
January 220 July
180
February 165 August 150
March 200 September 189
April 231 October 168
May 240 November 190
June 200 December 250
From the above table it
can be understood that in January 2008 as many as 220 injured persons due to
road accidents were saved by the 108 medical services in the city of Tirupati.
In the month of February there was a drop in the number of road accidents as
the number of persons rescued was only 165. Again there was a rise in the month
of March and so on. In this way the information given in a table can be
transformed into the verbal form.
2.
Flowchart
A flowchart is a simple diagram
that shows the different step involved in a process. It helps us to understand
the concept easily and quickly. The important steps involved in the process
have to be identified. They have to be then written down in an order. Given
below is a flowchart depicting the unemployment position in a country.
As there is more number of unemployed persons there will be heavy
competition for employment. As a result the wage rate will fall down. As lower
wages will be sufficient for survival only there will be no savings. This, in
turn, results in no investment. Hence lower capital formation which leads to
lesser growth rate/GDP. This again results in a drop in employment
opportunities which leads to more unemployment.
1.
Pie
Diagram
A pie diagram is a circular graph divided into sectors (parts). Each
sector shows the volume of some related piece of information. The sizes of the
different sectors put together make up the whole. Given below is the pie
diagram showing the pass percentage of students in the 10th class
examination of a particular school.
From the above diagram we can understand that 60% of the students passed
in 1st class, 25% passed in 2nd class, 15% passed in 3rd class and 5% of the
students failed in the 10th class examination.
1.
Bar
Graph
It
is a graphical representation of a certain data with vertical or horizontal
bars of different heights or lengths. A bar graph is very useful in piling and
comparing data. Given below is a bar graph giving details of the number of
wickets taken by the different bowlers of the Indian cricket team in a test
match.
From the above bar graph it is evident that
Harbhajan has taken 6 wickets, Jaheer Khan 5 wickets, Tendulkar 2 wickets and
Praveen and Yuvaraj 3 wickets each.
1.
Tree
Diagram
A
Tree Diagram is usually used to analyze certain information into categories and
sub-categories. A tree diagram presents information in a clear-cut manner.
Given below is a tree diagram classifying the language skills.
From the above tree diagram we can know that language skills are broadly
divided into two categories viz., Receptive Skills and Productive Skills. While
Listening and Reading are the receptive skills, Speaking and Writing are the
productive skills.
4.3.3
SUB-SKILLS OF WRITING-ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY LEVEL
According to Anne Raimes the
following are the sub-skills of writing:
1.
Mechanics - Handwriting, spelling and
pronunciation
2.
Word
Choice -
Vocabulary, idiom and tone
3.
Organization - Topics, paragraphs –
cohesion and unity
4.
Syntax - Sentence
structure, sentence boundaries, stylistic choices etc.
5.
Grammar - Parts of
speech, articles, rules for verb agreement etc.
6.
Content -
Relevance, originality, clarity, rationality etc.
7.
Writing
Process -
getting ideas, writing drafts, revising etc.
8.
Purpose -
Reasons for writing, justification.
4.3.4
OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING THE WRITING SKILL
The following objectives
are to be borne in the minds of the teachers while developing and promoting the
writing skills among the pupils.
1.
To make the pupils write simple, correct
and idiomatic English.
2.
To enable them organize their ideas and
thoughts.
3.
To make them improve and enhance their
vocabulary.
4.
To develop their power of imagination.
5.
To develop the ability of
self-expression with ease.
4.3.5
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD HANDWRITING
1.
Simplicity:
Simplicity implies that the writing should not have any unnecessary flourishing
or ornamentation. It should be neat and without any sort of decoration.
2.
Legibility:
Legibility
means clarity in identifying the different letters in a word and the different
words in a sentence. The handwriting should be intelligible and the reader
should not find it difficult to read and understand. According to Bell, “Illegible handwriting in a young
man or woman is a sign of an untidy and careless mind”. In order to bring about
legibility in the handwriting of his pupils the teacher should pay special
attention to the five aspects of cursive writing viz., letter formation, spacing, alignment, regularity of slant and quality of stroke.
3.
Uniformity:
All
the letters should be of uniform size. There should be consistent proportion
between their height and width. All the capital letters should be of one size
and all the small letters should be of one size. The capital letters should be
only a little larger than the small letters.
4.
Spacing:
The
spacing between letters in a word, words in a line and lines in a paragraph
should be proper and identical. There should be one letter spacing between word
and word and two-letter spacing between sentence and sentence and the spacing
between line and line should be equal.
5.
Distinctiveness:
Each
letter of the English alphabet has a characteristic shape of its own. Hence
each letter should stand distinctly from the neighbouring letters. For example e shouldn’t look like c; m like n; v like u etc.
6.
Speed:
Speed
is another important aspect of good handwriting. The writing should be not only
legible and beautiful but should be written at a reasonable speed. It should be
labored and dragged on. It should be done with apparent ease and comfort.
7.
Grace:
Above
all the handwriting should be beautiful and attractive. A good and beautiful
hand is a great asset to an individual. This can be attained with conscious and
constant practice.
8.
Punctuation
and Capitalization: The writing should be properly
punctuated using the different punctuation marks like full stop, interrogative
mark, exclamatory mark, comma, semicolon etc. wherever necessary. Capital
letters also should be used appropriately.
4.3.6
STEPS TO IMPROVE THE HANDWRITING OF PUPILS
The following suggestions
prove helpful in early stages for
making pupils acquire good handwriting.
1.
The beginning is to be made with the
four-lined notebooks.
2.
In the beginning pencil should be used
for writing. Later on open can be used.
3.
Calligraphy (copy writing) books should
be used. The teacher should guide the pupils in using them.
4.
Blackboard demonstrations should be
carefully planned and executed.
5.
Charts exhibiting good and model
handwriting should be hung in the classroom. This would inspire and encourage
pupils to write in a good way.
6.
Competitions among pupils for good
handwriting should be held. The winners should be appropriately rewarded by way
of encouragement to others.
7.
Individual attention should be paid to
the pupils handwriting. Bad handwriting should be checked instantaneously and
suggestions for improvement be given.
4.3.7
EXERCISES IN WRITING
The following exercises prove helpful in improving the handwriting of
pupils at the advanced stages.
1.
Transcription
Transcription implies copying the material from the chalkboard, flash
cards or copy books. It is the simplest kind of written exercise for the
pupils. It can be used for practice in handwriting. In the beginning it should
be employed for simple sentences. But later on even passages having good style
can be given for transcription.
Importance
of Transcription
Transcription is not merely a mechanical exercise. It plays a very
important role in learning handwriting. The following are its uses:
1.
When the learner looks at the words
carefully for copying them he at once forms mentl pictures of them. Such visual
memory helps the muscular movements of his hand while copying.
2.
Transcription helps in fixing the
material in the learner’s mind.
3.
It improves the spelling ability on the
part of the learners.
4.
While transcribing some sentences are
automatically learnt by heart. The learner enjoys repeating them for sheer
beauty of expression or style.
2.
Dictation
Dictation, in the good old
days, was regarded as a means of teaching spelling to the pupils. It also was
used as a means of developing good handwriting. In due course of time it was
realized that dictation could not teach spelling though it developed in the
learners habits of writing neatly and beautifully. As such dictation is a
useful aid to writing.
Importance
of Dictation
Dictation is a very useful exercise. It possesses the following
advantages.
1.
It offers mental discipline to the
learners. They are trained to listen to attentively and write down faithfully
whatever is dictated to them.
2.
It promotes a combination of speed,
accuracy and beauty in writing.
3.
It improves comprehension of language on
the part of the learner does not hear a word properly, he has to supply it
himself. This he can do only if he has been following the sense of the passage.
Mere mechanical reproduction is not the aim of dictation. The aim is to make
the learners write after understanding the meaning of what they are writing.
Objectives
of Dictation
1.
To train pupils listen carefully and to
reproduce what has been listened to in good handwriting and at a reasonable
speed.
2.
To promote and improve the habit of
concentration.
3.
To fix spellings.
4.
To reinforce vocabulary and structures
already learnt.
5.
To give practice in oral communication.
Matter
for Dictation
The matter meant for dictation should be judiciously selected. The
teacher should be very careful in making this selection. He has to keep in mind
the following suggestions while selecting the matter.
1.
The matter for dictation should be the
one with which the children are already familiar.
2.
The matter selected should not contain
too many difficult words.
3.
It should be neither too long nor too
short. It should be of reasonable length.
4.
Disconnected sentences may also be taken
up for dictation.
Dictation
Process
Before commencing to dictate the passage it should be read by the
teacher in the class. It will help the pupils to get a general idea of the
entire message. then the teacher should write the difficult words on the
chalkboard. They should be erased, of course, before the teacher begins to
dictate the passage. The dictation should be rendered at normal speed in sense
groups. The teacher should take care of the stress, intonation and pause. His
voice should be distinct and audible to the entire class. He should read the
passage once again after the dictation is over. This would enable the pupils to
fill in any gaps in the matter they have written.
