IDEALISM
Idealism
contends that spiritual aspects are the chief aspects of human life. When
emphasis is on the spiritual aspect, that is clled Idealism or Philosphy of
Idealism. The idealist idolize the mind beyond everything. Idealism exalts human
personality.
Idealism is a
philosophy is a thought propagated by the great philosophers like Plato,
Descartes, Berkeley, Hegel, Kant etc. Adisankaracharya, Swamy Dayanan
Saraswati, Yogi Aravinda Ghosh, Swamy Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhiand
Rabindranath Tagore advocated this philosophy.
The Vedic seers were great idealists. The Upanishads and the Bhagavadgita made a very comprehensive analysis of idealism. Plato
was a great Greek philosopher and an idealist.
Kathopanishad: An idealist is one, who possesses supreme knowledge by
concentration of mankind.
Brubacher: It is the mind
that is central in understanding the world.
D.M. Dutta: Idealism holds
that ultimate reality is spiritualism.
Idealism and Aims of Education:
Idealism provides us aims of education, which are considered to the most
important contributuion of idealism to education.
Froebel: The object of education is
the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolable and hence holy life. Education
should lead man to utility with God.
Sri Aurobindo: The central aim
of education is the building of the powers of the human mind and spirit. Not
gold but only men can make the people great and strong men who strive for truth
and honours sake stand fast but suffer long.
University Education Commission: If we wish to bring about a savage upheaval in our society, a ‘Rakshasa
Raj’ all that we need to do is to give vocation and technical education and to
starve the spirit. We will have a number of scientists without conscience.
Types of Idealism: There are four types of Idealism. All the four postulate that mind or
spirit is essential World stuff. The reality is of a mental character. They
are:
1. The subjective Idealism,
2. The objective Idealism,
3. The scientific Idealism and
4. Theistic Idealism
1.
The subjective Idealism: Leibnitz and Berkeley
conceived reality in terms of experiences of the individual mind. It includes
that nothing exists in the world apart from mind.
2.
The objective Idealism: Emmanuel Kant, the founder
of objective idealism presented formalistic or transcendental introspection of
the main idealistic principles. Hegel was inspired by Kantian interpretations
put forward the idea that the human world was made up of mind made objects.
3.
The scientific Idealism: Scientific idealism was
founded by Herman Cohen. Cohen applied Kant’s critical method to humanistic and
scientific studies. Ernst Cassirar, who was noted for clear analysis of man,
defined scientific idealism as that which creates culture through a unique
capacity for symbolic representation.
4.
The theistic Idealism: The theistic idealism was founded by RH Lolze.
According to him all phenomenon is foun in their unity. The world ground is the
trascendental synthesis of evolutionary world process, which is both mechanical
and theological. T.H. Green and F.H. Broadly are the followers of Lolze.
Rusk: Education must enable
mankind to enter into the spiritual realism.
Aims of education: The following are the aims of
education according to the philosophy of idealism.
1.
Self realization: According to idealism, man is the most beautiful
creation of God. Hence the advocates of idealism lay great emphasis on the
exaltation of human personality, they mean self realization. It involves full knowledge
of the self. The first aim of education according to idealism is to develop the
self of the individual. Self realization is to be achieved through the process
of education.
2.
Development of will power: Idealists give special
attention to development of will power. Man should be the author of his own
future. Individual is not only the creation but also the creator of heredity
and environment. He makes his progress in society by means of the power of
determination. He is the will power of the society. Man makes his development
by this power. Unfolding of divinity and such will power is necessary.
3.
To cultivate truth, beauty and goodness: Idealists assert the development of spiritual values is the individuals
pursuit of highest ideals namely – Truth, Beauty and Goodness should be
encouraged more and more. Rational attitude is to be cultivated.
4.
Preparation of Holy Life: The aim of education
according to idealistic philosophy is to prepare the child for a holy life.
Froebel rightly remarks “The objects of education is the realization of a faith
feel feel, pure, inviolable and hence holy life”. Cultural and spiritual
heritage is to be stressed.
5.
Development of intelligence and rationality: Accordin to Adams,”Man can understand the purpose as well as the plan and
organisation. There are set principles working in this creation”. An idealist
always tries to discover and understand these principles so that on the basis
of moral elements the world remain organized. In other words universal
education with universal individuals should be developed.
6.
Universal Education: Education should not only cater to the needs and
development of a few but for the society as a whol. In the opinion of Indian
sages & seers, every individual should develop fellow-feeling and pirit of
brotherhood. Their education should be universal in nature.
According to Ross, “The goal of
educative efforts must be self-realization for all not merely for favoured
few”. In view of Rusk, “Man’s higher or spiritual nature is essentially social”
and that “The social is an expression of man’s spiritual hence universal
nature”.
Role of the Teacher:
According to the idealists, the teacher occupies the highest place in the
process of education. The development of the child’s personality but not the
body is possible only by an effective personality of the teacher. The function
of the teacher is to awaken the innate powers of the child. A child cannot
acquire knowledge without the teacher. The true teacher destroy the ignorance
of the disciple. Teacher guides the student, takes the student from the
darkness to light, gives real knowledge and builds the total and sound
personality. The teacher is the axis of the teaching process totally.
The qualities of
an ideal teacher can be best understood from few following sayings of these
great personalities.
In words of Sri Aurobindo, “He is a man helping his
brthers, a chil leading other children, a light kindling other lights, an
awakened soul awakening other souls”.
In words of Rabindranath Tagore, “Only he can
teach, who can love. The greatest teachers of men have been lovers of man. The
real teaching is a gift. It is a sacrifice, it is not a manufactured article of
routine work and because it is a loving thing, it is the fulfilment of
knowledge of the teacher himself”.
In words of Mahatma Gandhi, “Education of the hear
could only be tone through the living touch of the teacher”.
In Froebel’s metaphor of the kindergarten,
the Kindergarten the function of the idealist teacher is found. Froebel regards
school as a garden and the teacher as the gardener. Just as the function of the
gardener is to tend the little plants so carefully as to help them to grow into
mature and beautiful trees, similarly the functions of the teacher is to lead
the children to their perfect developments – self realization or the
realization of trruth, beauty and goodness. The teacher makes all efforts the
child to grow in all respects.
Role of the Student:
In idealism the
student role is passive. The student is obedient and should have disciplinary
attitude. The disciple should be always controlled by the teacher and follow
the instructions strictly.
Methods of Teaching:
The method of
teaching used by the idealist teacher is not based on a ‘Logic of facts’. The
purpose of the idealist method of teaching is to lead the teacher and the
students to have more creative insights in order to reach their transcendental
travels.
They have not
adapted any specific any definite methods of teaching. They prescribe the
method like question answer method, conversation, dialogue, discussion,
lecture, arguementation, introspection, book study, debates etc. almost they
prescribe oral methods.
Froebel an
idealist philosopher regarded teaching method as ‘self stimulated activity’ or
‘ self activity’. Education through play way method involves education through
self activity.
Discipline:
Self-realization is the goal of life and the aim of education. To
achieve his aim, idealists do not fav our discipline. They believe in strict
discipline of the pupils. The teacher should impose discipline upon the pupils
and try to prepare an environments which will help them to realize the higher
helves of life through self-discipline.
Control is
an important component in idealistic philosophy of education. They feel that
there is more possibility of harm and less of benefit from full freedom given
to children. Henec they advocate limited liberty to children as the children
are immature to understand the consequences of all acts. Student has to lead a
disciplined life. Thus discipline originates from his/her soul and not from any
external pressure or repression. The student is directed by the voice of the
soul and not by the fear of some external authority. Self imposed regulation
and discipline is essential for self realization.
Curriculum:
The idealist
educator prefers the order and pattern of a subject matter/curriculum that
relates ideas and concepts to teach other. The synthesis of conceptual systems
such as those of language, mathematics and aesthetics represents the varied dimension
of the absolute.
The idealist curriculum constitutes the
cultural heritage of humankind, is hierarchial. At the top are most general
disciplines, philosophies and theology. Mathematics is especially valuable
because it cultivates the power to deal with abstractions. History and
literature also rank high since they are sources of moral and cultural models,
exemplars are heros. But somewhat lower in curricular priority are the natural
and physical sciences which deal with particular cause and effect
relationships.
Plato,
Berkelly, Locke, Kant and Hegel are some of the important thinkers, who have
contributed to the thought of idealism. According to them education is for the
mind, body and oul. According to idealists the teacher occupies the highest
place in the process of teaching.
Contribution of idealism to education:
1. The present world is threatened by materialism, which ignores higher
values of life. Idealism aims to restore man to his proper place.
2. Idealism holds that the past culture must be given its due place in any
scheme of educational reconstruction.
3. The present machine and electronic age threats the human being as a
machine.
4. Idealism assigns important place to the teacher in the entire educatrive
process.
5. Idealism insists that for the realization of the self every human being
must receive a chance to be educated. Thus the goal of the idealist in this
context is univarsal education.
6. Personality provides clear guidelines for determinig aims in education,
curricular, teacher’s role and methods of teaching learning process.
Criticism of Idealism:
1. Idealism being an abstract doctrine avoids present realities. It does not
show any interest in the present world and it prepares for the other world.
2. It avoids day to day real problems of the life and concentrates on the
ultimate end of life.
3. It places under emphasis on intellectuality.
4. In the modern educational process, child is more important than the
teacher. But idealism gives more importance to the teacher.
5. Idealists impose their imaginary ideas on the youth.
6. Though idealists accept the individual freedom and personality excellence,
yet they adopt a common curriculum, common content and common discipline.
Therefore students are coming out just like a machine product.
7. As idealists are away from facts of life, they neglect economic progress,
productive competencies and technological skills.
8. Methods of teaching in idealism show that they are far from the inductive
approach.
9. They pay attention on arts and literature, which are of very little
utility in the mundance life.
10. They underestimate the physical efforts and productive activity.
11. The concept of equality is viewed as limited to a few categories only.
12. To formulate the evaluating tools for the achievement of their progress is
not possible to universalise them.
Conclusion:
Man is the best
creation og God and his life has two aspects. One biological which he inherits
and the other sociological or cultural which he acquires. If he acquires ‘ideal
education’ he becomes humanised and learns to live and act like a normal human
being. Mis-education leads him to animalization. The modern materialists world
is morte distructive of human life then even the most warlike and the most
savages of its predecessors. At this critical moment idealism is the only
potential force in the philosophical domain to work as a tool for all over
moral, aesthetic, social and spiritual ills. Its importance in the modern
materialistic culture cannot be over emphasized. Man with woes and suffering in
this circumstances will turn to this system for moral upliftment and mental
peace.
Thus, the
philosophy of idealism has its own importance in the peesent scenario.
(ii) NATURALISM
The Naturalism in education was a revolution against the education of
mastery of books and harsh discipline. Their main aim was the acquisition of
knowledge. The naturalistic movement overthrew that conception of education and
made education child centered.
‘Return to
nature’, ‘Break the chains of society’ are the important slogans raised by the
naturalists. The most important philosophers who were considered as naturalists
are: Lencippus and Democritus (5th century), Epicurus (371-270 BC),
Lucretrus (96-55 BC), Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679 AD), J.J. Rousseau (1712-1778
AD), and Herbert Spencer(1820-1909 AD).
Definitions:
George Howard: Naturalism is
the exclusion of whatever is spiritual.
Hocking: “Naturalism considers nature
as the whole of reality”.
James Wards: “Naturalism
separates nature from God”.
Characteristics of Naturalism:
1. Nature alone is the source of all knowldege. It is the whole reality.
2. Mind is subordinate to nature.
3. Material world is the real world.
4. There is nothing like ‘super ntural’.
5. All values exist in nature.
6. Scientific knowldege is final.
7. Values are created in terms of specific needs.
8. Senses are the gateways of knowledge.
9. In the natural order of things all human beings are equal.
10. Everything that comes to us from nature is goos but it generates in the
hands of man.
11. Man creates societies to meet some of his needs.
12. Moral instinct, innate, conscience, providence, power of prayer and
freedom of will etc. are all illusions.
Types of Naturalism: Naturalism is classified into three types. They are
1. Biological Naturalism
2. Mechanical Naturalism
3. Physical Sciences Nturalism
1.
Biological Naturalism: This type of naturalism
assumes man as a product of evolution. Man because of his own nature is the
supreme creation of nature. He is termed as the supreme & superior most
animal. The main aim of this school is at achieving the present & future
happiness of the child.
2.
Mechanical Naturalism: Naturalists consider the
universe as ahuge machine. Man is the part of this machine and a complete
machine in itself.
3.
Physical Sciences Naturalism: It lays stress on external
nature. According to Darwin, the fouder of tehory of evolution, believed in the
principle of the struggle for existence and consequent survival of the fittest.
The main aim of education of this naturalism is to equip the individual or the
nation for that struggle to ensure survival in this world.
Aims of Education:
It is generally accepted. It has very little to offer as regards aims of education.
Naturalists differ in this respect.
1. Developing the child in accordance with the nature.
2. Sublimating of redirecting and coordinating the natural tendencies of the
child.
3. Equipping the child for the struggle of existence and ensuring the
survival.
4. Enabling the child to live in harmony with his surrounding and
environment.
5. Laying stress on the autonomous development of the individuality of the
child.
6. Self-expression: The child is born good and remains good. This goodness of the child should
be given a free and natural expression. The nature of the child should be given
time to grow and develop in a free atmosphere. As a result, the child can
express his self naturality.
7. Development of Individuality: The proper goal of human life is perfection of the individual. Education
must enable every individual child for the development of innate
potentialities. This individuality ideal which aims at making the child
selfless, tolerant and loving, ever eager to live in harmony with others in the
society. He cannot be a selfish individual, hostile to others. Through this
educational system, the individuality of the child can be developed completely.
Role of the teacher:
1.
Art of observing: Rousseau states “wish some discrete
person would give us a treatise on the art of observing children”.
2.
Art of suggesting: Rousseau writes “To know how to
suggest is the art of teaching”.
3.
Art of stimulating: Rousseau says, “the highest function of the
teacher consists not so much is imparting knowledge as on stimulating the pupil
in its love and pursuit”.
4.
Free development of the child: The teacher should not
impose himself on children. He should provide an environment with full freedom.
Views of Rousseau on teacher:
According to
Roussean, education is guidance. The teacher is an observer of the child’s
development rather than given of information, ideas and ideals. His place is
behind the scene. In teaching learning process, the teacher not only wares as
an observer, but also as a ‘supplier of materials & opportunities’,
‘provider of an ideal environment’, ‘creator of conditions under which natural
development takes place’. Thus, this system of education is termed as
auto-education.
Education is not
at all an artificial effort made by the teacher on his pupils. It is rather a
free development of his interests and motives. Hence, the teacher should
provide perfect freedom to the child to foster natural development.
Role of the child:
A naturalist accepts the child as a hero or star. Tender regard for the
child is very essential in the process of education. The whole process of
education revolves round the child as it is a child centered process. The
education proceeds in accordance with his interests and motives.
Methods of teaching:
Roussean’s views on method’s of teaching:
Development of the child through natural process is an enjoyable,
rational, harmoniously balanced, useful and hence natural life. Stress is given
on direct experience of things. Bookish knowledge should be minimized.
Science should
be learned through the pupil, own works in the laboratory, even the appratus
used by the child should be self-invented.
Roussean
recommends the method which is a combination of heuristic and experimental
method. ‘Learning by doing ‘ is the general principle which governs the
education.
1.
Experience is the best teacher: Rousseau advises “give your
scholar no verbal lessons, he should be taught by experience”.
2.
Observation method: The child should observe things and discover for
his/herself.
3.
Individualized instruction: Naturalist say every child’s
ability to acquire knowledge and to benefit the individual. Hence the method of
class teaching is not useful.
4.
Self education: The naturalist advocates that the child is
expectedto acquire information, knowledge and ideas by oneself.
5.
Things rather than words: Teach by during whatever you
can and only fall back upon words when during is out of question.
6.
Social learning through participation: A child acquires
social learning when he takes part in the social activities. Children should
learn the rights and duties of a citizen through the organization of a free,
natural society.
Discipline:
1.
Discipline by natural consequences: The concept of
discipline according to idealists may be expressed in four words, “Discipline
by natural consequences”. Natural consequences are those experiences which the
child receives by following an activity. When the child turns head against the
table, he feels pain. The remembrance of pain makes the child disciplined.
2.
No punishment: “Children should never receive punishment as such
it should always come as the natural consequences of his action”. If a child is
late for a picnic or party, let him learn from this experience of being late.
3.
Full freedom to the child: A naturalist starts with the
assumption that the nature of child is essentially good. Therefore, he should
be given freedom of expression and development. In the process of education, it
is the child himself rather than the educator, the school, the subject which
remains in the foreground of educational picture.
Curriculum:
1. Curiculum should be related to the aptitudes, interests and needs of the
child.
2. Curriculum should be constructed to meet the needs of the child and
according to the nature of development at each stage.
Rousseau recommended the curriculum at 4 stages
of the development of the child as follows:
Stage
Year of Duration
Aim
Curriculum
1. Infancy
From birth to 5 years
Physical Development
Physical education in a natural
way no set curriculum.
2. Childhood
5-12 years of age
Providing strength to the child
with which he may prepare himself for freedom
Negative education.
3. Preadolescent period
12-15 years
To make the child functionally
useful
Period of intellectual
development, it includes astronomy, sciences and arts, languages learning of
manual and industrial arts.
4. Adolescent period
15-18 years
To enable the students complex
social relationships
1. Study of economics, history,
politics and society.
2. Moral education through
activities and occupation.
5. Education of women
1. Since woman is made to
please the man, her education would be quite different.
2. Preparing her for pleasing
the man & for house hold work.
1. Teaching details of house
keeping.
2. Coocking
3. Cleaning
4. Maintaining accounts
5. Cleanliness
6. Moral education through
examples so that she remains chaste.
So, curriculum should be
based on the nature of the child, his aspirations, interests etc. it lays
stress on the subjects, which are helpful in the self preservation. It stresses
basic sciences giving importance to physical and health sciences.
Limitations of Naturalism in Education:
1.
No clear-cut
goals: Naturalism
does not offer definite aim of education.
2.
Neglect of
books: There
is very minor place for books. We cannot neglect the treasure of knowledge
contained in the printed materials.
3.
Negligible
importance to higher values: Naturalism by and large, ignores the higher
ends in the process of education.
4.
Undue
emphasis on education through nature: It is very certain that physical nature alone
cannot be considered adequate for providing all types of education.
5.
Absolute
freedom is a myth: Absolute freedom does not exist. It never existed. It will never
exist in a civilized society. Child cannot be given the long rope to hang
himself.
6.
Very little
role for the teacher: Naturalism minimizes the role of the teacher in the education
process. Even in this electronic age, a teacher occupies an important place in
the teaching-learning process.
7.
Neglect of
moral and spiritual values: Naturalism ignores the moral and spiritual
development of the child.
Contribution of Naturalism to Education:
1. Naturalism
indicates that educational institutions should be set up in natural
surroundings.
2. It has
brought to the forefront of the recognition of the child in the process of
education.
3. It advocates
that education should be child centered. The emphasis on the nature of the
child leads to the study of psychology.
4. It has
stressed that the educative process should be made a pleasurable and enjoyable
one.
5. It brought
to the light the significance of progressive methods of teaching like learning
by observing and learning by inductive approach.
6. Naturalism
has given birth to new movements and new types of educational institutions like
A.S. Neill’s summer school and Visvabharati.
Criticism on Naturalism:
1. Naturalism
lacks higher ideals of life.
2. Absolute
freedom is only a myth.
3. Spiritual
and moral values are neglected.
4. Naturalism
in its extreme from neglects books and media.
5. Naturalism
assigns very little importance to the role of the teacher.
6. Child
acquires discipline only through self-control, which is far away from
practically.
7. Child’s
future life is not takes care. As a result the child may become incompetent,
when the child enters the real world.
8. Due to
uncontrolled freedom, the individuals may develop selfishness.
Conclusion:
Naturalism
gave importance to freedom of the child in his process of learning in
educational field. Because in the opinion of Roussean, education comes to us
from nature. He gave importance to negative education. This education is not a
preparation for life but rather a preparation against the social conditions in
which the child lives. A child should be imparted negative education from five
to twelve years of his life, them he will be mature enough to take on positive
education. This Roussean’s concept of natural education has a great
significance in the present educational system. The curriculum frames can
consider this aspect of education while framing the curriculum of the pupils of
all age levels.
3.2. (iii) PRAGMATISM:
Etymologically the word
‘Pragmatism’ is derived from the Greek word ‘pragma’ which means ‘activity’ or
‘work done’. Some other scholars think that the word pragmatism has been
derived from the Greek word ‘pragmatikos’ which means ‘practicability’ or
‘utility’. Pragmatism is also called as ‘Experimentalism’ because pragmatists
believe experiment as the only criteria of truth.
Pragmatism is first developed by Charles Pierce in the 1875, revised and reformulated in 1898 by William James, primarily as a theory of truth further developed, expanded
and disseminated by John Dewey and
F C S Schiller.
Definitions:
Gomes B.
Prett: “Pragmatism
offers us a theory of meaning, a theory of truth of knowledge and a theory of
reality”.
Aims of Education:
Pragmatists have no fixed
aims or goals of education. Since the aim of human life changes with the
changing need of times, places and circumstances, no fixed, ultimate and
general aims of education can be pre-determined.
According to Ross, “Since life itself is
experimental, there is no definite goal towards which the child must advance”.
The aims of education should differ from child to child according to time &
circumstances.
According to John Dewey, “Education is abstract idea
only persons have aims”.
Some educational aims which can be framed from pragmatic point of view
are as follows:
1.
Creation of
new values: It is the general aim of education. Values are relative to time,
place and circumstances, which contributes to human and social growth and
development is regarded as valuable and which restricts or contracts experience
is trustworthy. The logic used is experimentalist education is inductive and
based on the scientific method. New values are created through activity and
experience. Provision of physical, intellectual, moral and aesthetic activities
act as the media for creation of values.
2.
Social
efficiency: It is the other aim of education. When the natural powers of an
individual are used for the social growth, social efficiency takes place.
Efficient citizenship is also part of social efficiency.
3.
Reconstruction
of experience: It is another aim of education. Pragmatism emphasizes adaption to
environment and construction to control the environment.
Adult life
is conscious with child whole. Life is nothing of aggregate of experiences.
Education is reconstruction of experiences. Experience is building up of habits
and thoughts in response to the needs of living and growth. They constantly
undergo change indicating a dynamic interaction between the organism and its
environment.
Role of the teacher:
According to pragmatism, the teacher is
neither superfluous nor the supreme authority. The teacher is a pragmatist
first and a teacher afterwards. The teacher is a friend, a philosopher and
guide of the child. The teacher does not attempt to dominate learning but seeks
to guide it by acting as a director or facilitator of the students’ activities.
The function of the
teacher is to create real life situations in which some problems may emerge and
the child is interested in the solution of those problems. The teacher has to
simple provide both the opportunities for activity and learning. Thus teacher
is a friend and helper. He does not care to follow a text book to all. Instead
he goes from one experiment to another in a disconnected manner.
The teacher follows the example of
Socrates, who “taught his pupils to think and act for themselves, to do rather
than to know, to originate rather than to repeat”.
Role of the student:
In the
pragmatism the student plays an important role, when compared with the teacher.
Both are equal but student’s activity is important. The teacher is the
director, the student is the discoverer and an achiever.
Methods of teaching:
From the pragmatic point
of view, there is no difference between curriculum and method of teaching. An
activity and technique to be followed are not different from each teacher.
The
pragmatists regard learning by doing is an important slogan of the pragmatists.
The child learns incidentally while carrying out some profits. Hypothesis is
translated into several activities. He goes on doing something, learning
something and modifying previous learning. Learning is essentially
experimental. Knowledge is not obtained from books but actually doing things.
The project
method introduced by John Dewey is not only a method of teaching but also a
device to cut across the school curriculum for children. The project method
enables the children to set to themselves a problem or a task and carry out
through their own planning and activity.
Project Method:
On the
foundations of the John Dewey’s ardent, disciple Kilpatrick formulated a solid and practical method of teaching
which goes by the name of ‘project method’.
Project is a whole hearted,
purposeful and problematic activity. This activity is carried on in its natural
setting. It is pupil centered. In project method the study is purposeful and
the child sees the meaning of the activities. Here the activity is chosen from
the real life of the children. This is not a theory but it is an activity, a
problem. The child is not required to learn the lesson by heart. In this method
the child would really do and learn. The child is active both physically and
mentally. The subject matter is organized into units and project. Children are
provided opportunities of work and play.
The problem
requires.
1. Reasoning
2. Imagining
3. Evaluating
4. Calculating
and
5. Judging
It is not a mechanical
activity. It is a meaningful act. There is no scope for artificial, bookish and
unrealistic education in project method.
The project is carried
out in social environment. It makes the pupils self reliant and resourceful.
This method is based on the psychological laws of learning. The law of
readiness, the law of exercise and law of effect. School subjects consequently
become useful studies, this method encourages a democratic way of learning.
Knowledge is gained as a whole. It makes the pupils to discover facts for their
self instead of providing discoveries already made.
Discipline:
There is no
place for a strict and rigid disciplinarian in a pragmatist school. Pragmatists
see the school as a specialized environment, that is an extension of the more
general social environment.
They emphasize discipline
according to the society. This disapproves individual discipline, instead
discipline should be social discipline. The purposeful and happy environment
induce good discipline. Virtues like tolerance, mutual respect, self control,
initiative, originality, sympathy, consideration for others are cultivated
through such social activities. This inculcates self discipline. Discipline is
not imposed by any eternal authority. Therefore, pragmatism emphasizes social
discipline through participation in co-operative activities of the school.
Curriculum:
The
pragmatist believes that problems tend to occur singly, one after the other.
Therefore he does not recognize the utility of systematic subjects as the
realist does, he does not like that a student should become specialist in a
subject, but may know nothing about anything else.
The curriculum should
include the language, agricultural science, hygiene, history, geography,
physical training, sciences for boys and domestic science for girls. The
elementary school curriculum should include reading, writing, counting, nature
study, hardwork and drawing.
The pragmatist curriculum
is concerned with the realities of child nature and of like. They feel that
physics and chemistry bring the student to systematic realm of symbolic
abstractions.
1.
Activity
oriented: Curriculum
is not fixed in advance. It should a flexible and changing curriculum.
2.
Utility
oriented: Curriculum
should be utilitarian. The activities and experiences provided should enable
the child to acquire the knowledge and skills required for present as well as
future life.
Pragmatist
emphasizes pupils interest in curriculum. It is not static but dynamic in
nature. Thus it is not at all rigid in its real sense. It is broadly situation
based. It denies existence of fixed, eternal and absolute values. According to
them education is not preparation for life, but life itself. The curriculum
should be based upon changing needs of the individual and the society.
Criticism on
Pragmatism:
1.
Pragmatism discards the higher values of life.
2.
There is no place of ‘Spirit’ in the pragmatic way of education.
3.
Pragmatism puts heavy demand on the teacher. Only a few
resourceful and gifted teachers may be able to cope with the demands of
teaching in an environment set up under Pragmatic system.
4.
Problems selected by the students may be unreal with no relation
to the real life situations.
5.
It is very difficult for the teacher to formulate the curriculum.
Conclusion:
The aims of education according
to Pragmatism clearly lays down that this philosophy has no fixed aims. Human
being always creates new things and education helps him in doing so. It gives a
new direction, a new purpose to education. It helps the individual to lead a
better, happier and richer life. Education help the child in providing a social
environment which will enable him to modify his mind in such a way as it
becomes dynamic and adaptable.
(iv) EXISTENTIALISM
The philosophers
associated with the development of Existentialism are:
1. Soren
Kierkgaard
2. Friedrich
Nietzsche
3. Martin
Heideggar
4. Jean-Paul
Sartre
These philosophers
interpret existentialism in their own way and more confusion is created if we study
their way of representing the philosophy because of diversities.
This philosophy originatd
out of the horrors of the two World wars. Some people are started writing
stories, novels & plays on despair, death, sufferings, anxiety, anguish,
horror, dread, persecution human
sacrifice caused due to the World wars.
Existentialists advocated
that it is not enough if you to ‘know’ the truth, you must ‘exist’ the truth.
Existence does not mean mere
living but it means to maintain complete, strong self-conscious, responsible
and progressive life.
Emphasis on
self realization:
According to
existentialistic view-point, the existence of individuality is the fact that
man should get an opportunity for self realization. The self-realization makes
the inner life of man as the centre of concentration free from anxiety. But it
is possible only when man gets opportunity for self realization.
Emphasis on
Freedom and Individual Responsibility:
According to
this philosophy, individual interest and individual discretions of the
individual are very important. If a man wants to experience real life, he would
require freedom. The mechanical and individual life of today has snatched away
the freedom of the individual and therefore the individual is being deprived of
realities and individual responsibilities.
Attention of
human weakness and insecurity:
The
existentialists have attracted the attention of the world towards human
weakness and insecurity. According to them in this scientific age, man is
leading, a solitary life surrounded by anxieties, frustrations, fear and
feeling of guilt. His individuality is being blunted continuously. If it
continues as such, one day individuality will be lost from the world for ever.
So far preservation and existence of individuality of man, he should be kept
free from all worries, frustrations, fear and feeling of guilty.
Education
according to Existentialism:
The
contribution of this thought to education is as follows.
Ø The
existentialists want to educate the whole man. The individual requires full
development of personality. So they o not like an educational system for one
side of the development.
Ø The
existentialists do not give much importance to ‘objective knowledge’. They
consider the ‘subjective knowledge’, more important. Hence they do not give
much importance to subjects like natural sciences and mathematics etc. which
give objective knowledge and sometimes they oppose them too. But it does not
mean that they consider these subjects as useless.
Ø The
existentialists do not imagine a person devoid of circumstances. The objective world
around us gives the individual the realization of ‘self’. Therefore the
existentialists give much importance to environment. So paying attention to the
environment i.e. all those subjects, which can take the person to perfection
and can give them self realization are to be included in the curriculum.
Ø The
existentialists give more importance to subjectivity rather than to
objectivity. According to them, education should make the individual subjective
and should make the person consciousness for one’s own individuality or ‘self’.
Ø Existentialism
is not a philosophy for revealing the truth or eternity and reality of
objective world. It is a doctrine of discussing the existence of ‘self’.
Ø It does not
consider the personality of others from the objective point of view. According
to it, there can be no alternative to individuality. So it is necessary to give
special importance to individuality of man in education.
Ø Existentialism
opposes the scientific, industrial and technical environment, which does not
allow the individual, social, economic, political and ethical environment
around. Man tries to know every situation in the context of other but not in
his own context.
Educational
implications of Existentialism:
The most
important aim in education is the becoming of a human person as one who lives
and makes decisions about what one will do and be ‘knowing’ in the sense of
knowing oneself. Social relationship and biological development are all parts
of this becoming. Human existence and the value related to it is the primary
factor in education.
The
school should provide an atmosphere where the individuals develop in a healthy
way. Children thrive better when relieved from intense competition, harsh
discipline and fear of failure. Thus each child can grow to understand one’s
own needs and values and take change of the experiences for changing them. In
this way self evaluation is the beginning and end of learning process. As
learning proceeds, children are freely growing, fearless, understanding,
individuals encouragement and acceptance by teacher’s foster trustworthiness
and sense of security.
Any subject in school can
present existential situations for teaching and the development of human
beings. However some subjects reflect the meditative awareness of the essential
conditions than others. Literature and arts are the needs required on the part
of the students.
The teacher is in a
position to foster individual growth. He can facilitate development of
originality and creativity by providing a climate as well as basic skills and
tools which make possible exploration. The rewards or the punishments of the
school do not foster growth. The aims of school tasks should be to nurture self
discipline and cultivate self evaluation. Mass teachings and mass testings are
not advocated. Ideal relationship between the teachers and students is most
important. The human self related to dynamic world forms the key to education.
The role of the teacher according to existentialism is regarded as an observer
or a guide. The teacher welcomes even the challenges to his/her ideas from the
students. Democratic ideals should pervade the school democracy must be the
soil in which the individuals grow. It should be the democracy of unique
individuals, who value differences and respect one another. Self government,
pupil participation in planning and the encouragement of a free atmosphere is
the characteristic s of the school.
Moral judgments are made
not according to traditional standards but according to fitness of individuals.
Teacher should avoid applying labels to children – such as lazy, slow learner,
bright etc. for individuals. Children need positive evaluation but not labels.
Good concepts issue in worthwhile behavior. Mechanization and impersonality
should be counteracted in school. The tendencies in contemporary society,
particularly in the west towards anonymity of collectivism. Information about
individuals is recorded through data processing on computer. Students may be
represented by cards/numbers and symbols. Students timetable and work progress
are computerized. Thus the relationship between the individual student and the
school programmes becomes an impersonal one. Besides this the use of programmed
instruction, teaching machines and other equipment decrease the personal
contact between the teachers and the students. According to the opinion
existentialists, this impersonality is a hazard to the individual development
and growth of the child’s personality. Education in the contemporary society,
which is technologically advanced may well be cleansed and strengthened by
emphasizing the idea of ‘Man for Himself’.
Role of the
teacher:
The teacher is an important
base of the educational process. According to existentialists the teacher is
important because he is the creator of such an educational situation in which
the student can establish contact with his self by becoming conscious of his
‘self’ and can achieve self realization. If the teacher is objective, he/she
cannot make the children introverts. The teacher should so guide children that
they become faithful to self by with drawing themselves from exclusive faith in
objective world.
Role of the
student:
The
existentialists want to give full freedom to the child. But the child should
know the nature of ones ‘self’ and recognize the existence and convert
imperfection into perfection, but the existentialists never mean that the child
after education should become selfish, automatic and irresponsible. They
advocate freedom that is needed only for natural development.
Existentialists believe that the teacher
should provide education according to the individual capabilities and needs of
the child. The ‘self’ of the child should not be blunted. The relation of the
child with one’s own ‘self’ should be strengthened rather than served.
Curriculum:
The
existentialists want such an educational system which may gradually take the
students to subjectivity. Though in the beginning they may obtain objective
knowledge in the contact of the objective world. Subjects like science make the
individuals so much objective that our relation with ‘self’ is broken. By
learning science there is a sort of inner misleading and no peace. So
existentialism wants to include also the subjects of moral and religious
education in the curriculum. Along with humanities, subjects which teach dignity
of labour should also be taught. But all these subjects should be according to
the nature of the child and individual
interests.
Criticism on
existentialism:
1. It is very
difficult to bring self realization all the time.
2. Providing
free environment to the child always is not possible.
3. It is not
easy to control the influence of external world on the individual since the
individual has to line in the society and interact with the society for various
needs.
4. Ignoring the
subjects like sciences and mathematics saying that they develop objectivity is
meaningless in the present world.
5. It is very
difficult to control the emotions and feelings of the individual in each and
every situation. They are the psychological instincts of the individual. Even
the impact of them may vary from child to child. So it is difficult to
generalize the consequences of psychological characteristics.
6. There is
possibility of preparing the child as ‘self centered’.
Conclusion:
Existentialism is designed to create a
sense of self-awareness and to contribute to the authenticity as human beings.
Education is a process of developing consciousness about the freedom to choose
and about the meaning of and responsibility for one’s own choice. The classroom
should be rich in the materials that provide themselves to self-expression. An
existentialist educator encourages students to engage in philosophizing about the meaning of the human experiences of
life, love and death. Existentialists regard school as a place where
individuals meet to pursue dialogue and discussion about their own lives and
choices.
Eclectic
Tendency:
According to
Eclectic approach to education, no philosophy is complete by itself. In this,
man has to strive for achieving unity in diversity. Values are subjected to
change. Principles too change accordingly. Therefore, it is necessary to have
altogether new principles. Life is a flow. Educational policies also should
change in accordance with the changed conditions of the society. All ‘isms’ or
schools of philosophy agree to some extent certain principles in general.
Instructions in schools should be learner centered. This is a combination of
different viewpoints as laid down by different philosophers. This is actually
the present system of education in India.
Comparing
philosophy of idealism, naturalism and pragmatism different regards:
Subject
|
Idealism
|
Naturalism
|
Pragmatism
|
Exponents
|
a.
Socrates
b.
Plato
c.
Rabindranath
Tagore
d.
M.K.
Gandhi
e.
Hegel
f.
Aurobindo
Ghosh
|
a.
Aristotle
b.
Lamark
c.
Bernard
d.
Shaw
e.
Rousseau
f.
Darwin
g.
Democritus
|
a.
William
James
b.
Perce
c.
Schiller
d.
John
Dewey
e.
Kilpatrick
and others
|
Meaning
|
Idealism:
The word ‘Idealism’ signifies two terms, ‘Idea’ and ‘Ideal’. The ultimate
supremacy is of ideas. Idealism holds that ultimate reality is spiritual.
|
Naturalism:
According to naturalism ‘Material world is the real world’. It emphasis on
matter and physical world. It is absolute and real.
|
Pragmatism:
Pragmatism is a midway between naturalism and idealism. Derived from Greek
work ’Pragma’ which means action.
|
Assertions
|
a.
Spirit
and mind constitute reality.
b.
Idealism
insists in God.
c.
Man
being spiritual is a superior creation.
d.
Universal
mind
e.
Knowledge
is perceived and crystallized in mind.
f.
Realization
of higher values.
g.
Importance
of personality development.
h.
It
is monistic concept.
|
a.
Nature
is the ultimate reality
b.
Naturalist
do not believe to God.
c.
No
distinction between mind and body.
d.
Scientific
knowledge
e.
Inductive
method
f.
Values
are resident in nature
g.
Man
an offspring of nature
h.
Senses
are the gateway of knowledge
i.
Unchargeable
laws of nature
j.
It
is monistic concept
|
a.
Pragmatism
a revolt against Traditionalism & Absolutism
b.
Pragmatism
does not believe in God or spiritual values it has full faith in man.
c.
Rejects
ultimate rules.
d.
Though
it is subordinate to action
e.
Pragmatism
as instrumentalism
f.
Pragmatism
as humanism
g.
Pragmatism
as experimentalism
h.
Philosophy
as the theory of education
i.
Man
creates his own values
j.
Faith
in democracy
k.
It
is pluralistic concept
|
Principles of Education
|
a.
Education
is based on spiritualism and ethics.
b.
Emphasizes
mental capacities.
c.
Teacher
and curricular are the centers of education.
d.
Emphasizes
book learning.
e.
Both
individual and society are valued
f.
It
is a definite and specific ideology.
|
a.
Education
is based on psychology
b.
It
emphasizes basic instincts, interests and tendencies.
c.
Child
is the center of education
d.
It
opposes book learning
e.
Only
individuals is considered and valued
f.
It
is progressive and dynamic ideology.
|
a.
Education
is based on psychology and science
b.
It
emphasizes experiment and science
c.
It
emphasizes experiment and practice
d.
Child
is the focal point of all educational activities
e.
It
opposes book learning
f.
Only
society is emphasizes
g.
It
is a progressive dynamic and changeable ideology
|
Aims of Education
|
a.
Exaltation
of human personality
b.
Universal
education
c.
Enrolment
of cultural environment
d.
Cultivation
of moral values
e.
Preparation
of a holy life
|
a.
Self
expression
b.
Redirection
of human instincts
c.
Struggle
for existence
d.
Education
according to the nature of the child.
e.
Autonomous
development
|
a.
The
aim of education is more education
b.
Harmonious
development of an individual
c.
Continuous
reconstruction of experience
d.
Social
efficiency
e.
Continuous
growth
f.
Personal
and social adjustment
|
Curriculum
|
Idealism
attaches great importance to those subjects which provide significant
knowledge and wisdom. Curriculum reflects experience of the human race as a
whole. Human activities may be classified as
a)
Intellectual
b)
Aesthetic
c)
Moral
|
a.
No
rigid curriculum
b.
Sciences
c.
Focal
point
d.
Study
of past experiences
e.
Rousseau
advocates the idea of negative education. Let the child learn through direct
experience in the lap of nature. He is against verbalism and text books.
f.
T.
Huxley the prefers literary and aesthetic culture to be the main points of
the curriculum
|
a.
Utility
form
b.
Childs
natural interests
c.
Principle
of integration
|
Methods of Teaching
|
a.
Questioning
b.
Discussion
c.
Lecture
Method
d.
Imitation
e.
Deductive
and Inductive Method
|
a.
Play
way method
b.
Observation
and experiments
|
|
Discipline
|
Idealism
emphasize sympathetic control on the child whereas on the other hand, it
grants regulated liberty for his spiritual development. Idealism focuses
mainly on discipline.
|
Naturalism
gives maximum freedom to the child. It is the freedom that helps the child to
grow in the natural way.
|
|
Roles of Teacher
|
Idealism
gives prominent place to the teacher. The teacher serves as aliving ideal or
model for the student and represents, to some degree, what students can
become. In reality, an idealist teacher is imbued fully with higher degree of
self knowledge. Self dynamism and essential qualities of spiritualism.
|
a.
Teacher
– an observer
b.
Teacher
to understand the nature of the child.
c.
Teacher
as the state shelter
|
|
School
|
a.
According
to Idealism school is the only place for regular and effective education
|
a.
According
to naturalism, nature vast campus is the real school
b.
School
should be a natural and spontaneous
|
Review Questions
1.
Explain the chief characteristics of existentialism and the
educational thoughts.
2.
Describing the educational aims of idealism, write the role of
teacher in it.
3.
Explain the educational Philosophy of Naturalism and its consequences.
4.
Compare and contrast the Philosophy of Idealism with naturalism
and pragmatism with different regards.
5.
Explain the educational aims of pragmatism.
6.
Explain the chief characteristics of existentialism and the
educational thoughts.
7.
Explain the Snaky Philosophy of education.
8.
Explain the Yoga Philosophy of education.
9.
Explain the Nyaya Philosophy of education.
10. Explain the
Vedanta philosophy of education.
