October 2019 ~ Top Class Notes

October 30, 2019

Important Question "Approaches of Human Development"

1. What are the uses of Longitudinal and cross sectional approaches to understand Human Development?

2. Write the dimensions of growth and development?

3. Write the various stages of Human growth & development?

4. Write the differences between growth and development?

5.Write the factors influencing growth and development?

6. Explain the principles of growth and development and their educational Implications?

7. Explains the concept of growth , development & Maturation?

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October 30, 2019

LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS-SECTIONAL APPROACHES OF UNDERSTANDING DEVELOPMENT

What is Cross-Sectional Study?

Cross-sectional study is defined as an observational study where data is collected as a whole to study a population at a single point in time to examine the relationship between variables of interest.

In an observational study, a researcher records information about the participants without changing anything or manipulating the natural environment in which they exist.
The most important feature of a cross-sectional study is that it can compare different samples at one given point in time. For example, a researcher wants to understand the relationship between joggers and level of cholesterol, he/she might want to choose two age groups of daily joggers, one group is below 30 but more than 20 and the other, above 30 but below 40 and compare these to cholesterol levels amongst non-joggers in the same age categories.
The researcher at this point in time can create subsets for gender, but cannot consider past cholesterol levels as this would be outside the given parameters for cross-sectional studies.
Cross-sectional studies allow the study of many variables at a given time. Researchers can look at age, gender, income etc in relation to jogging and cholesterol at a very little or no additional cost involved.
However, there is one downside to cross-sectional study, this type of study is not able to provide a definitive relation between cause and effect relation (a cause and effect relationship is one where one action (cause) makes another event happen (effect), for example, without an alarm, you might oversleep.)
This is majorly because cross-sectional study offers a snapshot of a single moment in time, this study doesn’t consider what happens before or after. Therefore in this example stated above it is difficult to know if the daily joggers had low cholesterol levels before taking up jogging or if the activity helped them to reduce cholesterol levels that were previously high.

What is Longitudinal Study?

Longitudinal study, like the cross-sectional study, is also an observational study, in which data is gathered from the same sample repeatedly over an extended period of time. Longitudinal study can last from a few years to even decades depending on what kind of information needs to be obtained.

The benefit of conducting longitudinal study is that researchers can make notes of the changes, make observations and detect any changes in the characteristics of their participants. One of the important aspects here is that longitudinal study extends beyond a single frame in time. As a result, they can establish a proper sequence of the events occurred.
Continuing with the example, in longitudinal study a researcher wishes to look at the changes in cholesterol level in women above the age of 30 but below 40 years who have jogged regularly over the last 10 years. In longitudinal study setup, it would be possible to account for cholesterol levels at the start of the jogging regime, therefore longitudinal studies are more likely to suggest a cause-and-effect relationship.
Overall, research should drive the design, however, sometimes as the research progresses it helps determine which of the design is more appropriate. Cross-sectional studies can be done more quickly as compared to longitudinal studies. That’s why a researcher may start off with cross-sectional study and if needed follow it up with longitudinal studies.

Differences between Cross-Sectional Study and Longitudinal Study

Cross-sectional and longitudinal study both are types of observational study, where the participants are observed in their natural environment. There are no alteration or changes in the environment in which the participants exist.

Despite this marked similarity, there are distinctive differences between both these forms of study. Let us analyze the differences between cross-sectional study and longitudinal study.

Cross-sectional study	Longitudinal study
Cross-sectional studies are quick to conduct as compared to longitudinal studies.	Longitudinal studies may vary from a few years to even decades.
A cross-sectional study is conducted at a given point in time.	A longitudinal study requires a researcher to revisit participants of the study at proper intervals.
Cross-sectional study is conducted with different samples.	Longitudinal study is conducted with the same sample over the years.
Cross-sectional studies cannot pin down cause-and-effect relationship.	Longitudinal study can justify cause-and-effect relationship.
Multiple variables can be studied at a single point in time.	Only one variable is considered to conduct the study.
Cross-sectional study is comparatively cheaper.	Since the study goes on for years longitudinal study tends to get expensive.

Conclusion

It is true, study design greatly depends on the nature of research questions. Whenever a researcher decides to collect data by deploying surveys to his/her participants, what matters the most are the survey questions that are placed tactfully, so as to gather meaningful insights.

In other words, to know what kind of information a study should be able to collect is the first step in determining how to carry out the rest of the study. What steps need to be included and what can be given a pass.

Continuing from the example above, a researcher wants to establish a relation between the variables, “jogging” and “cholesterol” in this case, one of the first things that a researcher would need to establish in this kind of study is, to tell the most about the relationship. A few questions to ask would be, whether to compare cholesterol levels among different populations of joggers, non-joggers at the same point in time? Or to measure cholesterol levels in a single population of daily joggers over an extended period of time?

The first approach typically requires a cross-sectional study and the second approach requires a longitudinal study.

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October 30, 2019

DIMENSIONS OF THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1. Physical Growth -

Refers to the progressive development of the various parts of the body and their capacity to function properly.

2. Cognitive Development -

Includes such abilities as attending, observing, remembering, imagining, thinking, solving problems and growth in intelligence as well as language.

3. Emotional Development -

Refers to distinct emotional experience, specific to the particular stage of development.

4. Social Development -

It is the "the progressive improvement, through directed activity, of the individual in the comprehension of the social heritage and the formation of flexible conduct patterns of reasonable conformity with this heritages.

5. Moral Development -

Means learning social and moral values which includes lessons about honesty, kindness, charity, service.

6. Language Development -

The language that a child has acquired before going to school is the best criterion of his mental development. The development of linguistic ability also takes place according to the principles characterizing other aspects of development. This development is the outcome of maturity and learning, and in it, the child has to learn many new responses and to refine many of the responses learnt in the past.

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October 30, 2019

STAGES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN

Stages of Growth and Development in Children

Growth and development goes side by side, and both have profound effects upon each other. When a child is born, passes through various stages and ultimately a whole picture of a person emerges. The following are the stages of growth and development through which every children passes:

1.Infancy: (From Birth to 2 Years)

2. Early Childhood (2-6 Years)

3.Later Childhood (6-12 Years)

4. Adolescence (12-19 Years)

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October 30, 2019

PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

To explain the overall growth process, it is very essential to know about the principles or patterns of characteristics of growth and development.

1. The Principle of uniform development pattern ;

In human being, the process of growth and development follows a definite pattern. All the development directions and sequences are almost the same for all children, but each child follows his own time schedule of growth

2. The principle of development speed variation :

It is observed that the growth and development becomes very rapid in infancy or early years of life and later the speed decreases.(Rapid from birth to 2 years, and 11-15 years)

3. The principle of development direction :

The growth and development has got its own direction. It follows cephalocandal sequence, which means that the human beings grow from head downwards. First of body & legs occur. The child first attempt to move his head and then try to sit,walk or run. This principle is based on physical development of human beings. It is also known as principle "from the head tailward".

4. The principle of proximodistal sequence :

It means that the development takes place from center to periphery gradients. The spinal coed of the child develops first and then the outward development of heart and chest etc. takes place.

5. The principle of continuity :

The process of growth and development continues from birth to death in some or the other form. The rate of development process may not be even but it never stops until the mental and physical traits reach to their maximum in the individual.

6.The principle of general to specific development :
Development proceeds from general to specific e.g., the child learns first general concepts and then makes depth or specific studies. The child learn to control his full hand and later he tries to control on the movement of the fingers on his hands.

7. The principle of total development :
The development term does not mean only the physical development, but includes mental, social, emotional & cultural etc. All these types of development are interrelated and interdependent. It is an unifying process of all types of growth and development.

8. The principle of maturation and learning :
Both learning and maturation are interrelated factors at work. Every development has got their own limit. The child may be matured for something and may not be matured for others. Therefore, the theory of development emphasizes on the factor of maturation, adjustment, requirement & opportunities for learning accordingly. The efforts of coaching etc. to accelerate the learning are not desirable till the child gets proper maturity for the purpose. The level of maturity in children varies.

9. The principle of prediction :
This principle conveys us that the growth and development is predictable. We can predict something regarding the mental, social or emotional development of the persons by studying the rate of their developments in previous years.

10. The principle of comulation & recapitulation :
The development is always comulative and recapitulation. It is the sum total number of events & experience of child and is not based on single event or change. Development is called racapitulatory because the characteristics of one stage can be establised in other stage. E.g., Self-love of earlier years may also be observed in the adolescent years.